1. INTRODUCTION
The number of disused infrastructures is growing not only in the US and Western Europe but globally, and problems related to the management and decommissioning of these infrastructures is becoming increasingly important (Doyle and Havlick, 2009).
Beginning with the Promenade Plantée in Paris, plans have been implemented in urban areas to replace abandoned railroads and bridges with linear parks. This trend has led to the construction of the High-line project in New York, and the Vancouver’s Port Mann Bridge, Philadelphia’s Reading Viaduct, Sydney’s monorail and Singapore’s Railways, following in the future (Heathcott, 2013; Sinha, 2014).
Following this trend, the Seoul Metropolitan Government
planned the transformation of old overpass nearby Seoul Station to the pedestrian park. Through an international design competition in 2015, the SMG selected a scheme to convert a defunct overpass that was constructed over Seoul Station in 1970 into a pedestrian park (SMG, 2015). The project, initiated in 2014, has been controversial for its rapid implementation.
The project is also the first of its kind in South Korea (Cho, 2015). This project was completed in May 2017, named ‘Seoullo 7017.’ In 2017, over 7 million people visited this park. However, whether this tangible success comes from the opening effect or it would continue in the following years remains to be a question to be answered.
Controversial issues during the implementation process include traffic and economic circumstances of neighboring commercial districts resulting from the closure of the overpass.
Some people who supported the installation of the park argued that it would promote more connections between the East and West regions of the area as well as around Seoul station, thus tying together the neighboring urban environment. Other people, however, opposed Seoullo 7017 because they were not convinced that the park would function well as a connection between both sides of overpass (Cho, 2015). Considering both sides’ arguments, it is concluded that Seoullo 7017 projects should deal with pedestrians’ environment and integrate the areas that are divided by the railroad tracks of Seoul station.
An Analysis on Seoullo 7017 in Terms of Spatial Configuration and Pedestrian Movement in Comparison with the High-line Project
Junho Choi and Jaepil Choi
Ph.D. candidate, Department of Architecture, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea Professor, Department of Architecture, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
https://doi.org/10.5659/AIKAR.2019.21.2.31
Abstract Inspired by the success of the High-line project in New York, The Seoul Metropolitan Government launched a project to convert an overpass near Seoul station into a pedestrian park. Seoullo 7017 went through instant success after its opening in May 2017; however, there is a continuous controversy over its long-term impact as shown in the exemplary cases like the High-line project. This study aims for quantitative investigation through the comparative analysis between Seoullo 7017 and the High-Line in the perspectives of spatial configuration. Space Syntax was chosen as the analysis method for this research. Integration (3) in Space Syntax is known to have a high correlation with pedestrian volume; thus, by using this method, spatial structure was analyzed by comparing the statistically verified results of changes in the spatial structure of the Highline with those in Seoul. The results indicated that the influence of Seoullo 7017 was less than that of the High-line in terms of spatial configuration. The reason for this difference is spatial configuration between Manhattan and Seoul. The High-line is located in Manhattan which has an urban grid structure, whereas Seoul has non-geometric urban structure, the neighborhood unit in Korea. Also the center of the overpass isn’t connected well with its surroundings.
Keywords: Seoullo 7017, High-line, Pedestrian Movement, Space Syntax, Spatial Configuration
Corresponding Author : Jaepil Choi
Department of Architecture, Gwanak-ro 1, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, South Korea
e-mail : [email protected]
©Copyright 2019 Architectural Institute of Korea.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://
creativecommons. org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Although Seoullo 7017 was inspired by the High-line in New York City, the urban context structures of two cities are different. Even if Seoullo 7017 was to be constructed under the highest standard of quality, its success cannot be guaranteed if the relationship between the park and neighboring areas is not closely connected. Thus, it is necessary to verify whether Seoullo 7017 fosters such close relations with surroundings and improve pedestrianization in the area after its insertion into Seoul’s urban structure.
The purpose of this research is to analyze the changes and influences on the pedestrian environment around Seoul Station subsequent to Seoullo 7017 Project. In order to verify the effects and influences of the project, the research uses the Space Syntax method to quantitatively compare Seoullo 7017 Project with the High-line Project in New York.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND METHODOLOGY (1) Literature Review
The literature on urban abandoned infrastructure and its adaptive reuse applications are found in several disciplines.
Doyle and Havlick (2009) classified urban infrastructures by type and studied their present condition and decommissioning effects on the environment. Focusing on infrastructure related to transportation such as road and railway, they found that these infrastructures greatly increased with industrialization in the 19 and 20th centuries, but many of them have been abandoned.
The conversion of unused infrastructure-in particular, railroads-for alternative purposes began with the Promenade Plantée project in Paris. Heathcott (2013) studied the regeneration process of Promenade Plantte from a social, economic, and urban perspective, and determined which institutional and public endeavors have been combined to achieve success. Another example is the High line in NY. David and Hammond (2011) studied the history of the High line, the process of development, the stories of those involved, and the features of each phase.
In addition, some studies have been conducted to suggest proposals for projects or to evaluate project proposals. Sinha (2014) reviewed the design proposals related to the adaptive reuse of the Bloomingdale tail in Chicago and examined the implications of each proposal. Kim (2015) proposed a park plan for Seoul Station Overpass by analyzing the planning environment of the site and the citizen’s opinions of the planned park.
Other researches explored these cases from the perspective of urban form. Lynch (1984) looked at the linear park as a kind of open space in the city. He explains its general characteristics and how it exists in the city. Kullmann (2011) included infrastructural open spaces with a linear typology into his review of a linear parks and surveyed twenty linear parks in post- infrastructural sites in the US and Western Europe. Through this study, he discussed their distinct characteristics and classified them into six typologies. He investigated the characteristics of linear parks in detail and defined them in terms of ratio, edge,
lateral access, impermeability and linear transit.
Other studies explored the effects of urban installation. Yoon and Currid-Halkett (2014) studied the effect of new urban parks that reused abandoned infrastructure on regional industry establishment. Focusing their research on the West Chelsea neighborhood of Manhattan where the High line was installed, they examined how the installation of the High line in 2009 and the reorganization of zoning system in 2005 affected the establishment of the regional industry. Heathcott (2013) also found that the development of the Promenade Plantée in Paris had a gentrification effect on the surrounding areas. It strongly altered the residential population and the social stratum compared to other areas.
Previous studies have dealt with the social, industrial and institutional changes due to road and railway regeneration.
However, this study is meaningful not only to examine Seoullo 7017, but also to suggest the future direction of similar projects through systematic comparative analysis on the two major projects.
(2) Space Syntax
Space Syntax, which has been developed by Hillier, B and Hanson, J from Bartlett, UCL since the 1980’s, represents a quantitative spatial analysis method of architectural and urban space. The method focuses on the relation among spatial components in order to analyze topological centrality, accessibility, and efficiency of circulation in form of arranged space. In terms of walking activities, it was found that the main factor of generating pedestrian movement was the urban configuration, and it was also found that there is a high correlation between the pedestrian movement and integration in the London area (Hillier et al, 1993). In addition, a study on the Seoul area showed a high correlation between the pedestrian movement and local integration value. (Lim, 2003; Kim and Shin, 2004; Cho, 2006).
‘Integration’ in Space Syntax measures the mean depth of every other line in the system from each line in turn, related with respect to how deep they could possibly be with that number of lines. Global integration is verified from the global spatial configuration, and it becomes more difficult to examine local characteristics as the range of a site gets larger. Therefore, the method called ‘Local integration’ is used. Through ‘local integration’, we usually look at just three steps of depth, which could be fixed at 3, 4 or 5, depending on the site’s character. In general, integration (3), verifying just 3 steps of depth, presents a result that is highly correlated with pedestrian volume.
The Integration (3) values of London’s and Seoul’s urban configurations are highly correlated to the actual volume of pedestrians. (Hillier et al, 1993; Cho, 2006)
Among the methods of space syntax, axial map is used to analyze urban space such as streets (fig.1). Lines are drawn following streets on a city map become nodes, and they make intersections that link each line. It is method of drawing axial map that within the visible sight, the longest lines should be drawn as few as possible (Hiller et al, 1993).
Figure 1. Example of Axial map drawing (Crucitti et al., 2006).
Most city streets are linear, which means that the axial map analysis is an appropriate method to analyze urban spatial configuration since integration and trip frequency present a high correlation.
In this research, we mainly employ axial map analysis to analyze pedestrian movement, and local integration (3) is used as a major index value.
(3) Spatial Analysis Method
Range of analysis considering edge effect: If we only analyze the actual site area, the index values of the periphery streets around the edge will not be accurate because of Space Syntax’s edge effects. Therefore the study considers to analyze the wider zones with the site as the center to minimize incorrect values.
Only considering the purpose of walking, previous studies mentioned average walking distance as 500m (Gehl, 2010).
With the consideration of distance between subway stations, 400~500m, the range seems relevant to Seoul. Yet, 500m is added to the average walking distance because of the edge effects. The range of study is 1km from the site (Cho, 2006; Kang, 2007).
Table 1. Range of analysis considering edge effect.
Seoullo 7017 NY High Line
Range of Analysis
Pedestrian axial map: When drawing a pedestrian axial map, the properties of pedestrian roads in Seoul and New York City should be reflected as they are. According to the type of road, there are clearly defined road that consist of sidewalks and driveways and unclearly defined road. The former should be drawn as two lines of sidewalk and the latter should be drawn as only one line.
Grid road problem: In axial map analysis, Manhattan, NYC,
Figure 2. Current state of Seoullo 7017
demands careful concern because the configuration of the city is a grid pattern. (Dalton, 2001; Cho, 2006). As with pedestrian axial map analysis, grid roads result in high values of integration.
If grid roads were to be drawn as one line, (i.e. not divided), all lines would result in a high integration value which means the analysis is not accurate enough. Therefore, the lines should be cut off at each block
Overpass connection with ground: In the High Line project, elevators and stairs are used to connect the ground with the upper level. The Seoul project also plans to use ramps and escalators. As the axial map of the ground and the axial map of the upper level road could overlap, to prevent this overlap, researchers should physically separate the lines that overlap on the map but in reality are not linked.
3. CURRENT STATE OF RESEARCH SUBJECT The Seoul Station overpass, which is 915m long, was installed in 1975 to link traffic from Namdaemun-5ga to Manri-dong.
Seoul Metropolitan government is trying to attempt to renovate the overpass into a pedestrian park in order to use this as a tool for urban regeneration. The road measures 8.4m wide and 17m in height, and it is connected to the ground level at 17 points.
Design guidelines were set up through an international design competition, and the 2017 (SMG, 2015).
Figure 3. Current state of the High-line
Examining the surrounding areas of the overpass, we can see that the west side, Junglim-dong and Chungpa-dong, is a residential area, in which the National Theater Company of Korea and Yakhyun church built in 1892 are located. The north side, Sogong-dong region, has a development plan where Seosomun Historical Park will be located. The east side, Hoehyun-dong region, contains Namdaemun which is the no.1 treasure of Korea, and Namdaemun Market, traditional market in Seoul. The east side region is an office area where Seoul Square building, Yonsei building, and other tall buildings are located. The south side, Namyoung-dong and Huam-dong region, includes the old Seoul Station, the New Seoul Station, Seoul Station Square and Seoul Station Transfer Center (SMG, 2015).
The High-line, located in New York, was a freight train railroad which opened in 1934 and links West 34th Ave to St. Jones Park.
After the railroad was fully closed in 1999, ‘High-line friends’
was founded to discuss to reuse the railroad. In 2009 and 2011 phase 1 and 2 were first opened, with phase 3 being recently opened. The whole length measures 2.3km, 20m wide, and 9m in height. The High-line links 22 blocks of the city with stairs, elevators, and ramps.
The starting point of The High-line is Gansevoort Plaza and the new Whitney Museum, which opened in 2015. The High-line passes through Chelsea market at West 16th street where public events are frequently held. Phase 2 goes through West 20th street and 30th street which is named ‘Chelsea historic district’, and it contains 350 galleries that display their advertisement panels on a wall that can be seen by passing through the High-line. Phase 3 is planned to be redeveloped into a large scale residential and commercial area (David and Hammond, 2011).
4. RESULT
(1) Before and After Analysis of Seoullo 7017
Seoullo 7017 region prior to the opening of integration(3) is presented in Fig. 4. Red represents a high value, whereas blue represents a low value.
Analyzing the results of integration (3), the central area of the Seoul Station Overpass does not have strong walk-centrality, whereas the integration (3) values of the main pedestrian streets of the dongs - the smallest administrative district unit - surrounding Seoul Station is high, suggesting possibility of high pedestrian volume. The central areas of Huam-dong, Junglim- dong, Chungpa-dong, and Namchang-dong have a local integration (3) value of 2.18 ~ 2.25(a,b,c,d,e in Fig. 4), and these values are about 56 percent higher than the average value of the surroundings and 27 percent higher than the average integration (3) value of pedestrian streets nearby Seoul station.
Taking a closer look at the area around Seoullo 7017, pedestrian passages that have a horizontal relation with the overpass (C,I in Fig. 4) have a high integration(3) value, but pedestrian passages that have a vertical relation with the overpass (A, B, E in Fig. 4) have a relatively low integration(3) value. The reason why the North-South direction has a low value is that the connection with the surrounding area is cut off due to the railway and the road. This situation shows that the ‘border vacuum’, such as a railway, has a bad influence on the pedestrian movement (Jacobs, 1961). We expect that there will be a positive influence for pedestrians in terms of spatial configuration as Seoullo 7017 is located in an East-West direction linking two regions which have a large volume of pedestrians. However, considerations of pedestrians on the North-South direction are necessary because of the relatively low pedestrian volume.
The change of integration (3) after Seoullo 7017 is shown in Fig. 5. However the changes in the integration (3) are not clearly shown in the map. Therefore the project should consider the integration difference around the area (Fig. 6). By looking
Figure 4. Local integration (3) prior to opening of Seoullo 7017
Figure 5. Local integration (3) of after opening of Seoullo 7017
into the integration (3), the result of Seoullo 7017 affects through the East area, Namchangdong, and the West-South area, Chungpadong. These two areas are more affected by the project than other regions. Because they have higher number of complicated paths than other areas near Seoullo 7017.
Following the installation of the overpass, the integration value of pedestrian passages near the overpass will increase, but not all of them. The greatest increase in integration(3) value is found on the pedestrian passage (A in Fig. 6.) in front of Seoul station square and the west side of Seoul station, Chungpa-ro (G in Fig. 6.) and Seosomun8-gil (H in Fig. 6.). The reason why the passage in front of Seoul station has an increased integration (3)
Figure 6. Local integration (3) difference between before and after (increasing part)
value can be explained by two influential factors: an elevator that connects with Seoul station square and stairs that connects with Seoul station transfer center. Also, the west side of the pedestrian overpass has a higher integration (3) value because there are many planned access points. This part of the overpass already has three access points, but this number will be increased to eleven providing more connections with the ground level pedestrian passage that gives the west side of the overpass a higher integration(3) value.
Toigye-ro (C) and Junglim-ro (D) region on the east-west line does not have a high increasing integration (3). The pedestrian passage on the north side area near Seosomun-park (E) does not increase in value. The main reason for this is that this area is very close to the railroad, and therefore it lacks linkages with the surrounding pedestrian passages. Seosomun historical park will be built in this area, so if the park wants to attract more visitors, it should consider connections not only with Seoullo 7017, but also surrounding pedestrian passages that are blocked by the railroad.
The influence on this Project within 300 to 400m of the site is possibly concentrated on the pedestrian path. However, the influence is not that significant.
Looking only at the pedestrian overpass, the East side of the overpass shows high integration (3) value, but the value comes down gradually towards the West side. The East side of the overpass is horizontally with Toigye-ro that helps them to be related each other. However, the West side of the overpass used to be the entrance of the overpass, so it is not really connected to the urban context. (Fig. 7). The East region has a large range of influence from the overpass, but the West region has only a part of the influence.
Table 2. Comparison Integration (3) in Seoul
Index Name Before After Difference
Surrounding Area
a Huam-ro 2.178 2.194 0.015
b Namdaemoon-ro 2.207 2.207 0.000
c Saemunan-ro 2.492 2.520 0.028
d Bukchang-ro 2.197 2.197 0.000
Surrounding Area
C Toigye-ro 2.146 2.234 0.089
I Jungrim-ro 2.249 2.272 0.023
A Hangang-daero (in front of Seoul
Station) 1.471 1.800 0.329
F Hangang-
daero(South) 1.299 1.299 0.000
B Hangang-daero (opposite side of
Seoul Station) 1.599 1.679 0.080 D Sejong-daero 1.726 1.792 0.066 E Tongil-ro(Park) 1.414 1.500 0.086 H Seo-So-Mun-ro 1.727 1.975 0.249
G Cheongpa-ro 2.099 2.381 0.282
When considering the land usage of surrounding area, it is expectable that the pedestrian overpass has a lot of pedestrians from Namdaemun market to the Seoul Station and Seoul Station
Fiureg 7. Local Integration (3) of Seoullo 7017
Transfer Center, but few pedestrians from the residential area of the West in the aspect of spatial configuration. This analysis supports the argument that the overpass connects the East and the West.
The West region should be considered with direct connections to the main pedestrians of the residential area to revitalize the space of under and above the overpass.
(2) Before and After Analysis of the High Line Park line’s installation. First, looking at the results of Manhattan’s pedestrian network before the installation of the High-line displays a low integration (3) value (Fig. 8). In particular,
Fiureg 8. Local Integration (3) of before
installation of high line Fiureg 9. Local Integration (3) of after
installation of high line Fiureg 10. Local integration (3) difference between before and after (increasing part)
through West Chelsea’s axial map analysis, we found that the pedestrian network surrounding the High line district had a low integration (3) value meaning that these regions have a low pedestrian volume when compared to the average pedestrian volume. This feature shows same result as prior research that remained that the center region of Manhattan has a high integration value and Hudson riverside has a low integration value. (Cho, 2006).
Change of integration after the opening of High-line is shown in Fig. 9; all the High-line area has higher integration (3) values than other areas directly surrounding. Especially, phase 2 (H2 in Fig. 9) region has a much higher integration than any other surrounding areas. Also, the blocks that the High-line passes through display increased integration.
The High-line itself has a higher integration (3), 1.92, than its surrounding streets and avenues. Especially, phase 2 which is in the center of the High-line has a significantly higher integration (3) than pedestrian passages nearby (a - j in Fig. 9). Phase 2 goes from 20th street to 30th street as a long and straight pedestrian road, and has a higher integration (3) because it has many connections to the ground level. Also, this indicates that pedestrian volume through the High-line would be higher than the pedestrian movement through passages around the High-line.
Having a higher integration value around the High-line’s phase 2 is beneficial, considering urban context and land use around the area. The area that phase 2 passes through is designated as a historical area; in addition, this area has 350 galleries attracting many visitors. Such cultural traits and spatial traits are mixed well in this area. Thus, it seems that the environment and atmosphere enhances pedestrian volume. This result explains the prior study’s result in the aspect of spatial configuration that the gentrification happened in this area was in larger scale than other areas in Manhattan (Yoon and Curried-Halkett, 2014).
Table 3. Comparison Integration (3) in New York
Index Name of Street Before After Differences
Surro- unding Highline
a Gansevoort
(north) 1.67 1.68 0.01
b Washington 1.67 1.99 0.32
c W15(north) 1.67 1.67 0.00
d 10th avenue
(16 to 17) 1.67 1.68 0.01
e W20th
( 10 to 11) 1.54 1.95 0.42
f W26 (north) 1.67 1.68 0.01
g W26 (south) 1.67 2.00 0.33
h W30(north) 1.68 1.98 0.3
i W30(south) 1.67 1.98 0.31
j 11th avenue
(29 to 30) 1.67 1.68 0.01
Highline
total Mean - 1.92 -
H1 Phase 1 - 1.85 -
H2 Phase 2 - 2.56 -
H3 Phase 3 - 1.71 -
Phase 1 shows lower integration value than phase 2. When the Highline opened only phase 1, Baldwin (2009) maintained that the Highline should have higher connectivity and integration with surrounding area. Phase 3 (H3 in Fig. 9) which opened last had a relatively low integration (1.0~1.6) since phase 3 had no connections with its surroundings. Until recently, it was used as a switchyard.
(3) Comparative analysis of Seoullo 7017 and the High Line project
By comparing Seoullo 7017 project with the High-line project and their influences on their surroundings. We examined the influence of the overpass on its surrounding areas and the influence of the overpass itself. First, looking carefully at the overpass, the High-line’s influence is greater than that of Seoullo 7017. Phase 2 of the High-line has an integration (3) that is 28~68 percent higher than its surrounding pedestrian passages.
Pedestrian activity moves from the surrounding pedestrian network to the High-line itself. The integration (3) of Seoullo 7017 shows only possess a median value when compared to the surrounding pedestrian network (1.50~2.27).
Table 4. Descriptive statistics of Integration (3) value in Seoullo 7017, High-line
Mean N SD
Seoullo 7017 Before 1.386 1065 0.407
After 1.400 1065 0.413
High-line Before 1.652 4044 0.154
After 1.654 4044 0.155
The results were verified by a paired t-test which analyzed integration (3) mean value before and after the installation of Seoullo 7017 and the High-line (table 5). The result of Seoullo 7017 was not statistically meaningful, since the p-value is greater than 0.05. For the paired t-test of High-line, t-value was 6.864 greater than 2.58 which is 99 percent reliability value.
p-value was 0.000 lower than 0.01 which is the significance level. This indicates that Seoullo 7017 does not locally influence its surroundings, whereas the High-line’s local influence on surroundings is high.
Table 5. Paired t-test result of Integration (3) value comparing before and after Seoullo 7017, the High-line (1km radius)
Mean SD t df Sig.
2-tailed
Seoullo 7017 0.013 0.257 1.674 1064 0.094
High Line 0.002 0.021 6.864 4043 0.000***
Note: ***p < 0.01. SD= Standard deviation
Compared to the High-line Project how much it positively influences the neighborhood, Seoullo 7017 had less impact to the neighborhood. The reasons for this result are following. First, they have different spatial configurations. While Seoullo 7017 has railroad tracks and a wide ten-lane road which disconnects the linkages to the park, the High-line straightly goes through twenty-two urban blocks.
Second, they have different aspects of reusing the existing infrastructures. The High-line was the railroad which transported freight. Therefore, it closely connected the urban structures and factories in West Chelsea. However, the fact that Seoullo 7017 remodels a bridge which barely connects two entrance areas makes the different results and affects.
5. CONCLUSION
The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of installation of Seoullo 7017 on the spatial configuration.
Although many visitors have visited since the opening, it is still questionable whether these effects will continue in the long run. This research aims to analyze the change and influence of pedestrian environment around Seoul Station quantitatively by comparing it to the High-line project in New York, in order to verify the effects and influence of Seoullo 7017 both before and after its construction.
As a result, it is concluded that the installation of Seoullo 7017 influences the urban spatial configuration.
1. It has been expected to have a positive influence for pedestrians as Seoullo 7017 is located in an East- West direction linking two regions which have a large volume of pedestrians.
2. The consequence of Seoullo 7017 spans throughout the East area, Namchangdong, and the West-South area, Chungpadong. These two areas are more affected by this project than other regions.
3. Through this project, it was analyzed that walking will be activated for the roads adjacent to Seoul Station.
4. The influence of this project within 300m to 400m surrounding the site is possibly concentrated on the pedestrian path.
However, the influence of Seoullo 7017 installation is less than that of the High-line’s. Seoullo 7017 shows similar integration(3) value as its surrounding pedestrian passages, but the High- line displays a significantly higher integration(3) than its surroundings. In terms of spatial configuration, the High-line became a main stream of pedestrian movement in the Chelsea area today.
Additionally, Seoullo 7017 has local influences that are shown at each end of the overpass, but the High-line has global influence that is displayed all over the High-line.
Moreover, the results are statistically significant. A paired t-test confirms that the change in integration (3) mean value of
Seoullo 7017 is insignificant, but the change of integration (3) mean value of the High-line is significant (p<0.01). The reason for this difference is a spatial configuration between New York and Seoul. The High-line travers through 22 urban blocks affecting its surroundings, but Seoullo 7017 has obstacles such as the railroad and the ten-lane boulevard that block the overpass’ connections to its surroundings. This means that Seoullo 7017 will have a low influence on its neighboring areas.
In conclusion, although Seoullo 7017 was inspired by the High-line project, and seeks to imitate its success, in terms of spatial configuration, Seoullo 7017 shows a minor influence on the pedestrian movement when compared to the High-line.
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(Received Jan. 18, 2018/Revised Apr. 1, 2019/Accepted Jun. 18, 2019)
