Korean-speaking Adults' and Children's Interpretation of Causatives

I nt e r pr et at i onofCaus at i ve s*

Jinsun Choe

(Hankuk University of Foreign Studies)

Choe ,J i ns un.( 2 0 1 4 ) .Kor e a n- s pe a ki ng Adul t s ’a nd Chi l dr e n' sI nt e r pr e t a t i on of Ca us a t i ve s .Th eLi ng ui s t i cAs s o c i a t i o n o fKo r e aJ o ur na l ,2 2 ( 1 ) ,1 1 1 - 1 2 8 .Thi ss t udy i nve s t i ga t e swhe t he rt woKor e a nc a us a t i vet ype s( mor phol ogi c a la nds ynt a c t i c )ha ve t hes a mee nt a i l me ntpr ope r t i e si na dul ta ndc hi l dKor e a n.A Tr ut hVa l ueJ udgme nt Ta s k( Cr a i n& Thor nt on,1 9 9 8 )wa sc onduc t e dwi t hs i xt e e na dul t sa nds howe dt ha t t he e nt a i l me ntr e l a t i on i sr e qui r e d f ort he mor phol ogi c a lc a us a t i ve .Twe nt y- f i ve c hi l dr e npa r t i c i pa t e di nt hes a met a s ka ndbe ha ve ds i mi l a r l yt oa dul t si nt ha tt he y r e j e c t e dt hemor phol ogi c a lc a us a t i vewhe nt hec a us e de ve ntdi dnotoc c ur .Ont he ot he rha nd,i twa sr e ve a l e d t ha ts ome c hi l dr e n we r e s e ns i t i ve t o t he t ype of c a us a t i onde pi c t e di nt het a s k.The ys howe dat e nde nc yt ol i nkt hemor phol ogi c a l c a us a t i veonl ywhe ni twa sa s s oc i a t e dwi t hdi r e c tc a us a t i on,butnotwi t hi ndi r e c t c a us a t i on.Thi sobs e r ve ddi f f e r e nc ebe t we e na dul t sa ndc hi l dr e nma ybee xpl a i ne d byt heI c oni c i t yPr i nc i pl e( Ha i ma n,1 9 8 3 ) ,whi c hpr e di c t st hemor phol ogi c a lc a us a t i ve t o bea s s oc i a t e d wi t h di r e c tc a us a t i on,a nd t hes ynt a c t i cc a us a t i vewi t h i ndi r e c t c a us a t i on.

Ke y Wor ds :l a ngua ge a c qui s i t i on,mor phol ogi c a lc a us a t i ve s ,s ynt a c t i c c a us a t i ve s , e nt a i l me ntr e l a t i on,Kor e a nc a us a t i ve s

*A pr e l i mi nar y ve r s i on oft hi spape ra ppe a r e d i n La ng ua geAc q ui s i t i o n a nd De ve l o p me nt :

Pr o c e e di ngso fGe ne r a t i veApp r o a c h e st oLa ngua g eAc q ui s i t i o n ( GALA)2 0 09 .Iwoul d l i ket o

t ha nkKa mi lDe e na ndWi l l i am O' Gr adyf ort he i rva l ua bl ec omme nt sone ar l i e rve r s i onsof

t hepa pe r ,and t hr e eanonymousr e vi e we r sf ort he i rhe l pf uls ugge s t i ons .Al lr e ma i ni ng

e r r or sar emyown.

1. Introduction

La nguage sdi f f e rwi t hr e s pe c tt ot hewa yt he yde s c r i bec a us a lr e l at i ons hi ps . Fore xa mpl e ,i n Engl i s h,e i t he ra l e xi c a lc a us a t i ve ,e . g. ,J o hn k i l l e d Bi l lora s ynt a c t i c( pe r i phr as t i c )c a us at i ve ,e . g. ,J o h nc a us e dBi l lt odi ei sus e dt oe xpr e s s c a us at i on.Re gar di ng t he s e t wo ki nds ofc a us at i ve s ,t he ge ne r alc ons e ns us a mong r e s e a r c he r s i s t ha tt he r e i sa s e ma nt i c di f f e r e nc e be t we e n t he t wo, s ugge s t i ngt hatt he yar enotf ul l yi nt e r c ha nge abl e( e . g. ,Comr i e ,1 98 5;Mc Cawl e y, 1 97 8;Pi nke r ,19 89 ;Shi ba t ani ,1 97 5 ;Wi e r zbi c ka ,1 98 8 ;Wol f f ,2 0 03 ) .Kor e anal s o ha st wodi s t i nc tt ype sofc a us a t i vec ons t r uc t i ons( mor phol ogi c ala nds ynt a c t i c ) , a ndi thasbe e ns ugge s t e d t ha tt hes e ma nt i cdi f f e r e nc ebe t we e nt het wol i e si n t e r msoft het ypeofc a us a t i on( di r e c tvs .i ndi r e c t )a ndt hee nt a i l me ntpr ope r t i e s r e qui r i ngt hec aus e de ve ntt ooc c ur( e . g. ,Pa r k,19 72 ;Pa r k,20 03 ;Pat t e r s on,19 74 ; Shi ba t ani ,19 7 3,1 97 5;Sohn,19 94 ) .Whi l et hema j or i t yoft hepr e vi ouss t udi e son Kor e a nc aus at i ve sha vee xami ne dt hema ppi ngbe t we e nt hec aus a t i ont ypea nd t he c aus at i ve t ype ,notmuc h at t e nt i on ha sbe e n pai d t o t he e nt a i l me nti n Kor e a nc aus at i ve s .

Thi ss t udyi nve s t i gat e swhe t he rt het woKor e anc a us a t i vepat t e r nshavet he s ame( di s c our s e - r e l at e d)e nt ai l me ntpr ope r t i e si n a dul tand c hi l d Kor e an,a nd f i nds t ha tbot h adul t sand c hi l dr e n r e qui r e t he c aus e d e ve ntt o oc c urf or mor phol ogi c al c aus a t i ve s . Thi s pape r i s or ga ni z e d a s f ol l ows . Se c t i on 2 i nt r oduc e s t woKor e a nc a us a t i vet ype sa nd pr ovi de sas umma r yofpr e vi ous r e s e ar c h,i nc l udi ng L1 a c qui s i t i on s t udi e s .Se c t i ons 3 a nd 4 pr e s e nt t wo e xpe r i me nt sonKor e an- s pe a ki nga dul t sandc hi l dr e n' si nt e r pr e t a t i onsoft het wo ki nds ofc a us at i ve s wi t h r e ga r d t o e nt ai l me ntr e l at i ons .La s t l y,Se c t i on 5 di s c us s e st hef i ndi ngsandc onc l ude st hepape r .

2. Previous Studies on Korean causatives

2.1. Two Causatives in Korean

Kor e an has t wo t ype s of c a us a t i ve c ons t r uc t i ons —mor phol ogi c al a nd

s ynt a c t i cc a us at i ve s .Themor phol ogi c a lc aus at i vei sf or me dwi t hs uf f i xe ss uc has

- i( ot he ral l omor phsi nc l ude- l i ,- h i ,a nd - k i ) ,a si n( 1 a) ,whe r e a st hes ynt ac t i c c a us at i ver e qui r e st hec ompl e me nt i z e r- k e ya ndt heve r bha - t a ,a si n( 1 b) .

( 1 )a .Themo r p h o l o gi c a lc a us a t i v e :

e mma - ka a i - e yke y pap- ul me k- i - e s s - t a .

mot he r - NOM c hi l d- DATr i c e - ACC e a t - CAUS- PST- DECL ' Themot he rf e dt hec hi l dr i c e . '

b.Thes y nt a c t i cc a us a t i ve :

e mma - ka a i - e yke y pap- ul me k- ke y mot he r - NOM c hi l d- DATr i c e - ACC e a t - COMP ha- ye s s - t a .

do- PST- DECL

' Themot he rmadet hec hi l de a tr i c e . '

The r e i s no ge ne r a la gr e e me nt on whe t he r t he t wo c ons t r uc t i ons ar e s e ma nt i c al l yi de nt i c alornot .Yang( 1 97 2,19 7 4,19 76 )c l ai mst hatmor phol ogi c al c a us at i ve sar ei n f ac tde r i ve d f r om s ynt ac t i cc a us a t i ve s ,a nd t ha tt het woa r e s ynonymous .I nc ont r as t ,anumbe rofr e s e a r c he r s( e . g. ,Par k,19 72 ;Par k,20 03 ; Pa t t e r s on,19 74 ;Shi bat a ni ,1 97 3 ,19 75 ;Sohn,19 9 4)have pos i t e d a s e mant i c di f f e r e nc ebe t we e nt het woi nt e r msoft het ypeofc a us a t i ona ndt hee nt a i l me nt r e l a t i ons .Iwi l lbr i e f l ydi s c us st hepr e vi ouss t udi e sr e gar di ngt he s et woar e as , butt he f oc usoft hi spape rwi l lbe on t he l a t t e r :t he not i on ofe nt a i l me nt r e l a t i ons .

Par k( 19 7 2) ,Shi ba t ani( 19 73 ,1 97 5 ) ,Pa t t e r s on( 19 7 4)a ndSohn( 1 99 4)a l la r gue t ha tt he t wo c aus a t i ve s i n Kor e an a r e di s t i nc tc ons t r uc t i ons wi t h di f f e r e nt unde r l yi ngs t r uc t ur e s ,ba s e dont heobs e r va t i ont hatt he ye xpr e s sdi f f e r e ntt ype s ofc a us a t i on.Ont heoneha nd,t hemor phol ogi c alc aus at i vei ss uppos e dl yus e d t o e xpr e s sdi r e c tc a us a t i on,i n whi c h t he r ei st ypi c a l l y phys i c a lmani pul a t i on i nvol vi ngana ge nt i vec aus e ra nd apa t i e ntc aus e e( e . g. ,amot he rput t i ngt he r i c ei nt ot hec hi l d’ smout hi n( 1a ) ) .Ont heot he rha nd,t hes ynt a c t i cc aus at i vei s c l ai me d t o be r e s e r ve d f or i ndi r e c tc aus at i on,whe r e t he r e i s ge ne r a l l y a di r e c t i on- gi vi ngs i t uat i on,wi t ht hec a us e ra ndt hec aus e ebot ha c t i nga sage nt s ( e . g. ,amot he ror de r i ngt hec hi l dt oe a tt her i c ei n( 1 b) ) ^{1 )} .

1)Fur t he r mor e ,Le e( 20 08 )s c he mat i c al l ys howst hatt heKor e a n pe r i phr a s t i c( i . e . ,s ynt a c t i c )

Pat t e r s on( 1 97 4)not i c e dt ha toneoft hepr ope r t i e st hatdi s t i ngui s hbe t we e n mor phol ogi c alc aus a t i ve sa nds ynt a c t i cc a us a t i ve si st ha tonl yt hef or me re nt ai l s t hec aus e de ve nt( dat af r om Pa t t e r s on,1 97 4,p.28 - 2 9) .I not he rwor ds ,t hee a t i ng e ve ntde s c r i be di nt hemor phol ogi c alc a us a t i ve( 2a )mus ta c t ua l l yoc c urf ort he whol es e nt e nc et obef e l i c i t ous ,whi l et hes a mer e qui r e me ntdoe snothol df or t he s ynt a c t i c c aus at i ve ( 2 b) .The r e f or e ,Pa t t e r s on not e s t hat t he s ynt a c t i c c a us at i ve( 2 b)c an bec ont i nue d by ac ont r ar ys t at e me nts uc h a s( 3 ) ,butt he mor phol ogi c alc aus at i ve( 2a )c a nnotbec ont i nue dbys uc hac l a us e .

( 2 )a .Themo r p h o l o gi c a lc a us a t i v e :

ku- ka na- e yke y ki mc hi - l ul me k- i - e s s - una , he - NOM I - DAT ki mc hi - ACC e at - CAUS- PST- but

‘ Hef e dmeki mc hi ,but . . . ’ b.Th es y nt a c t i cc a us a t i v e :

ku- ka na- e yke y ki mc hi - l ul me k- ke y he - NOM I - DAT ki mc hi - ACC e at - COMP ha- ye s s - una,

CAUS- PST- but

‘ Hec a us e dmet oe a tki mc hi ,but …’

( 3 ) nay- ka me k- c i an( i ) - ha - e s s - t a . I - NOM e at - COMP not - do- PST- DECL

‘ Idi dn’ te a tki mc hi . ’

Thi si sbe c a us et hemor phol ogi c a lc a us a t i ve( 2 a )e nt a i l st hec ompl e t i onoft he c a us e de ve nt ,andt hus ,t hes e nt e nc ewoul dbe c omeac ont r adi c t or ys t at e me nti f i twe r ef ol l owe d byt hec l aus ewhi c hne gat e st hec a us e d e ve nt .Ont heot he r ha nd,i ti spos s i bl ef ort hes ynt a c t i cc a us a t i ve( 2 b)t o beac c ompa ni e d by a ne ga t e dc l aus e ,s i nc ei tdoe snotr e qui r et hec a us e de ve ntt ooc c ur .

Cont r a r y e vi de nc e i s pr e s e nt e d by Ki m ( 20 0 5) , who c onduc t e d an

a c c e pt a bi l i t y j udgme ntt a s k wi t h t he t wo t ype s ofc a us a t i ve s t o de t e r mi ne

whe t he rt he yc a nbef ol l owe dbya“ but - c l aus e ”wi t houtc ont r a di c t i on.Twe l ve

na t i veKor e a n s pe a ke r swe r ea s ke d t ode t e r mi newhe t he rt hegi ve n s e nt e nc e

c aus a t i vec ons t r uc t i onr e pr e s e nt snotonl yt hec onc e ptofc aus i ng,butal s ot hec onc e pt sof

l e t t i nga ndpe r mi t t i ng.

c oul d bee xpr e s s e d i n t hegi ve n c ont e xt ,by mar ki ng e i t he rO orX ( O f or a c c e pt a nc eand X f ornon- ac c e pt anc e ) .Ther e s ul t sofhe re xpe r i me ntr e ve a l e d t he i rne a r - pe r f e c tac c e pt anc eofmos toft hes e nt e nc e s ,i n whi c h e a c h t ypeof c a us at i vei sc ombi ne dwi t hane ga t e dc l aus e .Thi ss howst ha tt het woc aus at i ve s donotdi f f e ri nt e r msofe nt ai l me ntr e l a t i onsa nd t ha tne i t he rc aus at i vet ype r e qui r e st hec a us e d e ve ntt ooc c ur .Thi si ss ur pr i s i ngi n t hatt hi sr e s ul tgoe s a ga i ns tPa t t e r s on’ s c l a i m t ha tc aus e and r e s ul ta r e f us e d i n mor phol ogi c al c a us at i ve s ,t he r e f or ema ki ng i ti mpos s i bl et o ne gat eonl y t her e s ul t .I n ot he r wor ds ,Ki m’ se xpe r i me nt als t udys ugge s t st hatnotonl ys ynt a c t i cc aus at i ve sbut a l s o mor phol ogi c a lc a us a t i ve sdo note xhi bi ta n e nt ai l me ntr e l a t i on.Thus ,i t s e e mst hatt he r eha sye tbe e nnoc l e a rans we rt ot heque s t i onoft hee nt ai l me nt r e l a t i onsi nKor e a nc aus at i ve s .

2.2. L1 Acquisition Studies

Thes t udi e sl ooki ngatt hea c qui s i t i onofKor e anc a us a t i ve sha veobs e r ve d t ha tmor phol ogi c a lc a us a t i ve sa r ea c qui r e de a r l i e rt hans ynt ac t i cc aus at i ve s( Cho, 1 99 2;Choi ,1 99 9;Le e ,19 77 ;Par k,20 0 9) .Choi ( 1 99 9) not e s t hat i n t he s pont ane ouss pe e c hs ampl e sofKor e a n- s pe aki ngc hi l dr e n,t woc hi l dr e nbe ga nt o us et hemor phol ogi c alc a us a t i vea r ound 1ye a rofage( Ki m,1 9 95 ) ,whi l et he s ynt a c t i cc a us a t i vef i r s ta ppe a r e dbya not he rt woc hi l dr e natt hea geofove r2 ye a r s( Ki m,19 89 ) .To e xpl ai n t hi sor de rofac qui s i t i on,Choi( 1 9 99 )a dopt s Pi a ge t ' sc l ai m ( 1 95 4)t hatt hec onc e ptofdi r e c tc a us a t i oni sa c qui r e de a r l i e rove r t ha tofi ndi r e c tc aus at i on,a nd t hus ,t hemor phol ogi c alc aus at i ve s ,whi c h a r e us ual l yl i nke dt ode pi c tdi r e c tc a us a t i on,ar epr e di c t e dt oa ppe are ar l i e rt ha nt he s ynt a c t i cc a us at i ve s ,a s s oc i a t e dwi t hi ndi r e c tc aus at i on.I nde e d,Choi( 1 9 99 )a l s o f i ndst ha tKor e a n- s pe aki ngc hi l dr e na r es e ns i t i vet ot hedi r e c t ne s sc ons t r a i nti n t he i rus eoft het woc a us a t i ve s .Outof5 1mor phol ogi c a lc a us at i ve spr oduc e dby f ourKor e an- s pe aki ngc hi l dr e n,4 7we r eus e dt ode s c r i bedi r e c tc aus at i on.Asf or t hes ynt a c t i cc a us a t i ve s ,t he r ewe r eonl y t wo ut t e r anc e s ,bot h ofwhi c h we r e pr oduc e dunde rt hec ont e xtofi ndi r e c tc a us a t i on.

Whi l et hepr e vi ouss t udi e sha vef oc us e dont heor de rofa c qui s i t i onoft he

t wo c aus at i ve s ,as we l las on t he di s t i nc t i on be t we e n di r e c ta nd i ndi r e c t

c a us at i on,t he r e ha ve be e n no s t udi e s whi c h i nve s t i gat e d Kor e a n- s pe aki ng

c hi l dr e n' si nt e r pr e t at i onoft het woc a us a t i ve si nt e r msofe nt a i l me ntr e l at i ons .

3. Experiment 1

The pur pos e of Expe r i me nt 1 i s t o e xami ne Kor e an- s pe a ki ng adul t s ' i nt e r pr e t at i on oft het wo t ype sofc aus at i ve swi t h r e s pe c tt o t her e l at i on of e nt a i l me nt .

3.1. Participants

Si xt e e n na t i ve Kor e an- s pe aki ng adul t s ,a ge d 24 t o 3 4 ( me an age =2 7; 5 ) pa r t i c i pa t e di nt hee xpe r i me nt .Al loft he m we r er e c r ui t e di nSe oul ,Kor e aand we r epa i d$ 5e a c hasc ompe ns a t i onf ort he i rt i me .

3.2. Procedures

A Tr ut h- Va l ueJ udgme ntTa s k ( Cr a i n & Mc Ke e ,19 85 ;Cr a i n & Thor nt on, 1 99 8)wasus e dt ot e s tt hepa r t i c i pa nt s ’j udgme nt soft hes t or i e sa nds e nt e nc e s . A wr i t t e nque s t i onnai r ewi t hs t or i e sand t a r ge ts e nt e nc e swa spr ovi de d.Af t e r r e adi ng e ac h s t or y,t hepa r t i c i pant swe r ea s ke d t o j udgewhe t he rt het ar ge t s e nt e nc ea de qua t e l yde s c r i be dt hes t or ybyc hoos i ngt r ueorf a l s e ,andt he ywe r e a s ke dt owr i t eaj us t i f i c at i onf ort he i ra ns we r .I not he rwor ds ,t hepa r t i c i pa nt s ha d t o e va l ua t e t he t r ut h- va l ue oft he t ar ge ts e nt e nc e ,r a t he rt han t o gi ve me t a l i ngui s t i ce va l ua t i onofs t a t e me nt s ,a si nKi m' s( 2 00 5 )s t udy.

3.3. Materials

Thema t e r i al sc ons i s t e doft we nt y- f ours t or i e si nt ot al ,e a c ha c c ompa ni e dby at a r ge ts e nt e nc e .The r ewe r et we l vee xpe r i me nt als t or i e sandt we l vef i l l e r s .Of t hee xpe r i me nt a ls t or i e s ,e i ghthadaNo- Ef f e c tc ont e xt ,whe r et hec aus e de ve nt di d nott a kepl a c e ,a nd t he s ewe r epai r e d wi t h s i x mor phol ogi c a land t wo s ynt a c t i cc aus at i ve s ^{2 )} .Theot he rf ours t or i e se ac hha danEf f e c tc ont e xti nwhi c h

2)Ther e as onf orhavi ngt hedi f f e r e ntnumbe rofi t e msonl yf ort heMor phol ogi c a lNo- Ef f e c t

c ondi t i onwast oc ount e r ba l anc et het r ue /f a l s eans we r sf ort hee nt i r ee xpe r i me nt ,s i nc et he

t a r ge tr e s pons ei s' f a l s e 'onl yf ort heMor phol ogi c a lNo- Ef f e c tc ondi t i on.Thus ,outoft we l ve

e xpe r i me nt a li t e ms ,t he r ewe r es i xi t e msi nt heMor phol ogi c a lNo- Ef f e c tc ondi t i on,a ndt wo

i t e msi ne a c hoft het hr e eot he rc ondi t i ons .

t he c a us e d e ve ntdi d t ake pl ac e ,pai r e d wi t h t wo mor phol ogi c ala nd t wo s ynt a c t i cc a us a t i ve s .A s a mpl e s t or y t r a ns l a t e d f r om Kor e a n wi t h t het a r ge t s e nt e nc ei sgi ve ni n( 4 ) .

( 4 )a.Sa mpl eSt o r y( No - Ef f e c t ) :Mom wasbus ypr e pa r i ngdi nne ri nt heki t c he n whi l et hec hi l dwass i t t i nga tt het abl e .Mom s e r ve dr i c et ot hec hi l d a nd t ol d hi m t oe a ti t ,butt hec hi l d s ai d hedi d notwa ntt oe a ti t . Mom s a i d,“ Thi si sdi nne rt i me .Youha vet oe atr i c e . ”Butt hec hi l d s ai dhewant e dt oe a tt hec ooki ei ns t e a d.Mom s a i dnoa ndke ptt e l l i ng hi m t oe a tr i c e ,buthedi dn’ tl i s t e nt ohe r .Fi nal l y,Mom s a i d,“ Fi ne .I f you f i ni s ht hatr i c e ,t he n Iwi l lgi veyou ac ooki e . ”And t he n Mom s t a r t e dt owor kbus i l yi nt heki t c he na ga i n.Whi l es hewa snotl ooki ng a tt hec hi l d,t hec hi l dgaver i c et ot hedogwhowass i t t i ngbe s i dehi m.

Af t e rt hedogf i ni s he de a t i ng,t hec hi l ds ai dt oMom,“ Mom,If i ni s he d i t .Ca nIhaveac ooki enow? ”

b.Ta r ge ts e nt e nc e( mo r p ho l o gi c a lc a us a t i v e ) : e mma - ka ai - e yke y pa p- ul mot he r - NOM c hi l d- DAT r i c e - ACC me k- i - e s s - e yo.

e a t - CAUS- PST- REGI STER

‘ Themot he rf e dt hec hi l de atr i c e . ’ c .Ta r ge ts e nt e nc e( s y nt a c t i cc a us a t i v e ) :

e mma - ka ai - e yke y pa p- ul mot he r - NOM c hi l d- DAT r i c e - ACC me k- ke y ha- ye s s - e yo.

e a t - COMP do- PST- REGI STER ' Themot he rmadet hec hi l de a tr i c e . '

3.4. Predictions

I nc ont e xt swhe r et he r ei snoe f f e c t ,a“t r ue ”r e s pons et oat a r ge tc a us a t i ve

s e nt e nc ewoul di ndi c a t et ha tt her e s ul toft hec a us at i vei snote nt ai l e d,whe r e as

a “ f a l s e ” r e s pons e woul d i ndi c at e t hat t he r e s ul t i s e nt ai l e d.Fol l owi ng

Pa t t e r s on’ s c l a i m ( 19 74 )a boute nt a i l me ntr e l a t i ons i n Kor e a n c a us a t i ve s ,a

“ f a l s e ”r e s pons ei se xpe c t e df ort hemor phol ogi c a lc a us a t i ve ,whi l et hes ynt ac t i c c a us at i ves houl d e l i c i ta“ t r ue ”r e s pons e .I n c ont r olc ont e xt s ,howe ve r ,whe r e t he r ei sane f f e c t( i . e . ,t her e s ul tac t ual l yoc c ur s ) ,a“t r ue ”r e s pons ewa se xpe c t e d f orbot ht ype sofc aus at i ve s .

3.5. Results and Discussion

Fi gur e1s howst heme a n pe r c e nt agea c c e pt a nc eoft het ar ge ts e nt e nc e si n e a c h c ondi t i on.The r e s ul t ss how t hatKor e a n a dul t smos t l y r e j e c tbot h t he mor phol ogi c aland s ynt ac t i c c aus at i ve swhe n t he r e i sno e f f e c t ,whi l e t he y a c c e ptbot hpa t t e r ns10 0% oft het i mei nt heEf f e c tc ondi t i on.Pai r e dt - t e s t swe r e pe r f or me dt oc ompar eme a npe r c e nt a geac c e pt anc ebe t we e nt het woc ondi t i ons ( No- Ef f e c tvs .Ef f e c t )wi t hi n e ac h c a us at i vet ype ,and t he r ewa sas i gni f i c ant di f f e r e nc e i n bot h c a us a t i ve s( mor phol ogi c a l :t ( 15 ) =3 1. 6 74 ;p<0 . 00 1,s ynt a c t i c : t ( 15 ) =1 7. 9 85 ;p <0. 0 01 ) .

Figure 1. Interpretation of Causatives by Adults

The r e s ul tf ort he mor phol ogi c a lc aus a t i ve i sc ons i s t e ntwi t h Pat t e r s on’ s

c l ai m i nt ha ti te nt ai l st her e a l i za t i onoft hec aus e de ve nt .Howe ve r ,t her e s ul t

f ort hes ynt a c t i cc a us a t i vei si nde e ds ur pr i s i ng.Asnot e de a r l i e r ,pr e vi ouswor k

on Kor e an c aus at i ve sha ss ugge s t e d t ha ti ti snotar e qui r e me nti n s ynt a c t i c

c a us at i ve sf ort hec a us e de ve ntt oha vea c t ua l l yoc c ur r e d.Ye t ,t her e s ul toft he

pr e s e nte xpe r i me ntpoi nt si nt heoppos i t edi r e c t i on.Thati s ,a dul t sr e j e c t e dt he

s ynt a c t i c c a us a t i ve i n t he No- Ef f e c t c ondi t i on, t r e at i ng i t j us t l i ke t he

mor phol ogi c alc aus at i ve .Thi s i s a n i nt r i gui ng mat t e rt hatc a l l s f orf ur t he r

i nve s t i gat i on,e s pe c i a l l y i fwec ons i de rt hef ol l owi ng s pe c i alpr ope r t y oft he

s ynt a c t i cc a us a t i vet ha thasbe e nove r l ooke di nt hec ur r e nte xpe r i me nta ndt ha t c oul dpr ovi deapos s i bl ee xpl ana t i onf ort heune xpe c t e dr e s ul t s .

Thes ynt a c t i cc a us a t i vedi f f e r sf r om t hemor phol ogi c a lc a us a t i vewi t hr e s pe c t t ot hepos s i bl ec as ea l t e r nat i onoft hec aus e ear gume nt .I nge ne r a l ,bot ht ype sof c a us at i ve sc a nus et heda t i vec a s ema r ke r- e y k e yort hea c c us a t i vec a s ema r ke r - l ult oma r kt hec aus e ear gume nt .Thes ynt a c t i cc a us a t i ve ,howe ve r ,hasa ne xt r a opt i on ofus i ng t henomi na t i vema r ke r- k ai ns t e ad oft heot he rma r ke r s .As i l l us t r at e di n( 5 ) ,t hec a us e ea r gume nta ii nt hemor phol ogi c a lc a us at i vec a nonl y bema r ke d wi t he i t he rt hedat i veorac c us at i vema r ke r ,whe r e a st hes ynt ac t i c c a us at i vea l l owsonemor eopt i on,whi c hi st henomi nat i vemar ke r .

( 5 )a .Themo r p h o l o gi c a lc a us a t i v e :

e mma - ka a i - e yke y/- l ul /* - ka pa p- ul mot he r - NOM c hi l d- DAT/- ACC/* - NOM r i c e - ACC me k- i - e s s - t a .

e a t - CAUS- PST- DECL

‘ Themot he rf e dt hec hi l dr i c e . ’ b.Th es ynt a c t i cc a us a t i ve :

e mma - ka a i - e yke y/- l ul /- ka pa p- ul mot he r - NOM c hi l d- DAT/- ACC/- NOM r i c e - ACC me k- ke y ha- ye s s - t a .

e a t - COMP do- PST- DECL

‘ Themot he rmadet hec hi l de a tr i c e . ’

I nf a c t ,manyr e s e a r c he r s( Sohn,1 97 3;Le e ,19 8 5;J - J .Song,1 9 88 ;S- C.Song, 1 98 8;O' Gr ady,19 91 )havepr opos e dt ha tt hedi f f e r e ntc a s ema r ke r soft hec aus e e NPc ont r i but et os e ma nt i cdi f f e r e nc e sofs ynt a c t i cc aus at i ve s .I npa r t i c ul ar ,Le e ( 2 0 08 )a r gue st hatt he r ear emor edi f f e r e nc e sbe t we e nt henomi nat i vec aus e eon t heoneha nda ndt heda t i ve /a c c us a t i vec aus e eont heot he rt hanbe t we e nt he dat i vec a us e eand t heac c us at i vec a us e es e mant i c a l l y.Fore xampl e ,t hedat i ve c a us e eNPi si nt e r pr e t e da sha vi ngmor ec ont r olove rt hec aus e de ve ntt hant he a c c us a t i vec a us e eNP,butt henomi nat i vec a us e eNP i sc ons t r ue d asha vi ng mor ef r e e dom andi nde pe nde nc et hant heda t i vec a us e eNP.

Thus ,t hee xi s t e nc eofane xt r ac a s e - ma r ki ngopt i oni nt hes ynt a c t i cc a us a t i ve

s ugge s t st hati tma ybet henomi nat i vec as emar ke rt hats i gna l st hes uppos e d di f f e r e nc ei ne nt ai l me ntr e l at i onsbe t we e nt het woc a us a t i ve s .I not he rwor ds , onehypot he s i swoul d bet hati ti s ,i n f a c t ,t hec as emar ke ron t hec a us e e a r gume nt ,r at he rt ha n t het ypeofc a us a t i ve ,whi c h mat t e r st ot hee nt a i l me nt r e l a t i onsoft hes e nt e nc e .I tma ybet hec as et ha tus i ngada t i veoranac c us at i ve ma r ke ra l waysi mpl i e st ha tt hec aus e d e ve ntha soc c ur r e d.Tha ti s ,e ve n t he s ynt a c t i cc aus at i vewoul dr e qui r eane nt a i l me ntr e l a t i onasl ongasi ts ha r e st he s amec as ema r ke rwi t h t hemor phol ogi c a lc aus at i ve .Ye t ,i ti sonl ywhe n t he c a us e e a r gume nti sma r ke d wi t h t he nomi na t i ve ma r ke rt hatan e nt a i l me nt r e l a t i ont hati ss uppos e dl yr e qui r e d f ors uc hc a us a t i ves e nt e nc e si sa l l e vi a t e d, a ndt hus ,t hec aus e de ve ntdoe snotne c e s s a r i l yoc c ur .I ft hi swe r ei nde e dt he c a s e ,t he nt her e s ul toft hec ur r e nte xpe r i me ntwoul dnotbeune xpe c t e d,s i nc e a l loft he t a r ge tc a us a t i ve s e nt e nc e sha d t he s a me c as e ma r ke r ,t he da t i ve ma r ke r- e y k e y.The r e f or e ,i twoul dbenos ur pr i s et ha tt hea dul t st r e a t e dt het wo c a us at i ve s i de nt i c a l l y wi t h r e s pe c t t o t he e nt ai l me nt r e l a t i on.At pr e s e nt , howe ve r ,t he r eha sbe e nnopr e vi ouswor kt hatc onne c t st hec as ema r ki ngi n s ynt a c t i cc aus at i ve st o t he i s s ue ofe nt ai l me nt ,and t hus ,t he r e s ul t soft he s ynt a c t i cc aus a t i vewi l lnotbedi s c us s e da nyf ur t he ri nt hi spape r ,s i nc ei ti sa t e nt a t i vec onc l us i ont ha tne e dst obeque s t i one da nde xpl or e df ur t he r .

4. Experiment 2

Expe r i me nt2wa sc onduc t e dwi t hc hi l dr e ni nor de rt oe xa mi nehow c hi l dr e n i nt e r pr e tt het woc a us a t i ve swi t h r e s pe c tt ot her e l a t i on ofe nt a i l me nta nd t o c ompa r et he i ri nt e r pr e t a t i onswi t ht hos eoft hea dul t si nt hepr e vi ouse xpe r i me nt .

4.1. Participants

Twe nt y- f i veKor e a n- s pe a ki ngc hi l dr e nage d4 ; 3t o6 ; 11( me ana ge =5; 4 )we r e

r e c r ui t e d f ort hes t udy.The y we r ef r om aki nde r ga r t e n i n Se oul ,Kor e aa nd

we r ec ompe ns a t e dwi t hagi f tof$ 5va l uef ort he i rpar t i c i pat i on.

4.2. Procedures

Thes ameTr ut h- Va l ueJ udgme ntTas kwase mpl oye dasi nExpe r i me nt1 ,but t hes t or i e swe r epr e s e nt e dwi t hpi c t ur e svi aPowe r poi nt .Thepi c t ur e sandt he c or r e s pondi ngt e xt sar es howni nFi gur e2 .Af t e re a c hs t or y,apuppe ta ppe ar e d on t hes c r e e n and ma deas t a t e me nta boutwha tha ppe ne d i n t hes t or y.The c hi l dwa sa s ke dt oj udgewhe t he rt hepuppe t ’ ss t at e me ntwa st r ueorf al s eand t ogi veaj us t i f i c a t i onf ort he i rc hoi c e .

Figure 2. Sample Pictures (with Texts) Shown in the Task

4.3. Materials

Themat e r i a l sandt hear r ange me ntoft hemat e r i a l swe r ei de nt i c a lt ot hos e us e d i n Expe r i me nt1 ,e xc e ptt hatt het ot alnumbe rofs t or i e swa sr e duc e d, pr e s e nt i nge i ghte xpe r i me nt als t or i e sa nde i ghtf i l l e r s .Oft hee i ghte xpe r i me nt al s t or i e s ,f ourhadaNo- Ef f e c tc ont e xt ,whe r et her e s ul tdoe snotoc c ura ndt he ot he r f our had an Ef f e c t c ont e xt ; e a c h c ont e xt was pa i r e d wi t h t wo mor phol ogi c ala ndt wos ynt ac t i cc a us at i ve s ^{3 )} .Thus ,f ourc ondi t i onswe r ec r e a t e d

3)Fol l owi ng t her e s ul t soft hepr e vi ouse xpe r i me ntast heba s e l i ne ,t he r ewast hes ame

numbe rofi t e msi ne ac hc ondi t i ont hi st i me ,t oc ount e r ba l a nc et he“ t r ue ”a ns we r sf ort he

( Mor phol ogi c a lNo- Ef f e c t ,Mor phol ogi c a lEf f e c t ,Synt a c t i cNo- Ef f e c t ,Synt a c t i c Ef f e c t ) ,e a c hwi t ht wot oke ns .

4.4. Predictions

I ft he c hi l dr e n ha ve ac qui r e d t he r e qui r e d e nt a i l me ntr e l a t i on f or t he mor phol ogi c al c a us a t i ve , t he y s houl d r e j e c t t he t a r ge t s e nt e nc e i n t he Mor phol ogi c al No- Ef f e c t c ondi t i on,whe r e a s t he y s houl d ac c e pt i t i n t he Mor phol ogi c alEf f e c tc ondi t i on.Re gar di ngt hes ynt ac t i cc aus at i ve ,i ti sdi f f i c ul t t oma keac l e a rpr e di c t i on,s i nc et hee xac tnat ur eoft hee nt ai l me ntr e l a t i oni n s ynt a c t i cc aus at i ve sha sye tt obede t e r mi ne d.

4.5. Results and Discussion

Oft het we nt y- f i vepa r t i c i pa nt s ,e ve r yc hi l dans we r e dc or r e c t l yonmor et ha n f i veoft hee i ghtf i l l e ri t e ms ,a ndt hus ,noc hi l dwa se xc l ude d i nt hea na l ys i s . Fi gur e3s umma r i z e show t hec hi l dr e na ndadul t sf r om Expe r i me nt1i nt e r pr e t e d t hemor phol ogi c a lc a us at i vei n t e r msofe nt ai l me ntr e l at i ons .I n t heNo- Ef f e c t c ondi t i on,c hi l dr e nr ar e l yac c e pt e dt het ar ge tmor phol ogi c a lc a us a t i ve ,a ss hown byt hel ow a c c e pt a nc er a t ei nt hi sc ondi t i on.Thi spat t e r nc ont r as t swi t ht ha ti n t heEf f e c tc ondi t i on,i nwhi c hc hi l dr e na c c e pt e dt hemor phol ogi c a lc aus at i vea t s i gni f i c ant l yhi ghe rr at e s( pa i r e dt - t e s t ,t ( 24 ) =5. 8 50 ;p <0. 0 01 ) .

Figure 3. Interpretation of Morphological Causatives by Adults and Children

whol ee xpe r i me nt .

The r e s ul t s f r om t he c hi l dr e n s ugge s tt he i r a wa r e ne s s oft he r e qui r e d

e nt a i l me ntr e l at i onf ort hemor phol ogi c a lc aus at i ve .Thati s ,t her e a l i za t i onoft he

c a us e de ve nti sne c e s s a r yf ort he m t oa c c e ptt het a r ge ts e nt e nc e ;t he yt husr e j e c t

i ti nt heNo- Ef f e c tc ondi t i on,be ha vi ngl i keadul t s .Howe ve r ,whati ss ur pr i s i ng

i nt her e s ul t si show c hi l dr e nr e s ponde dt ot heEf f e c tc ondi t i on.Asc anbes e e n

i nFi gur e3,t hec hi l dr e n’ sac c e pt anc er at ei nt heEf f e c tc ondi t i onwa sonl y6 2%,

whi c hi smuc hl owe rt ha nt hatofadul t s .Thi si se s pe c i al l ys t r i ki ng,gi ve nt ha t

t heEf f e c tc ondi t i oni nc l ude d ac ont e xti nwhi c ht hec aus e d e ve ntdi d i nf ac t

t akepl a c e .Toputi ta not he rwa y,i twa spr e s ume d t ha tt he r ewoul d beno

r e as onf ora nybody,e i t he ra dul t sorc hi l dr e n,t or e j e c tt het ar ge tc a us at i vei n

t hi sc ondi t i on,r e gar dl e s soft het ypeofc a us a t i vea nd e ve n r e ga r dl e s soft he

e nt a i l me ntr e l at i oni ti sas s oc i a t e dwi t h.The r e f or e ,t her e s ul t sa r epuzz l i ng,at

f i r s tgl anc e ,whi c hma ke sonewonde ra boutt her e as onbe hi ndt heune xpe c t e d

be ha vi orofs omec hi l dr e n.Howe ve r ,ba s e donar e vi e w oft hepr e vi ouswor k

on t hes e mant i c sofKor e an c aus a t i ve s ,aswe l la sc ar e f ule xa mi na t i on oft he

ma t e r i al sus e d i n t hee xpe r i me nt ,Ihypot he s i z et hef ol l owi ng:Somec hi l dr e n

r e j e c tt hemor phol ogi c alc a us a t i vei nt heEf f e c tc ondi t i onatahi ghe rr a t et ha n

a dul t sbe c a us et he ya r ef oc us i ngont hedi r e c t ne s soft hec a us a t i onr a t he rt han

ont her e s ul t .As me nt i one de a r l i e r ,Shi bat a ni( 1 97 3,1 9 75 )a ndot he rr e s e a r c he r s

ha vec l ai me dt hatt hedi f f e r e nc ei nt heme ani ngoft het woc a us a t i ve si nKor e an

i st ha tt hemor phol ogi c alc a us a t i vei sa s s oc i a t e dwi t hdi r e c tc aus at i ona ndt he

s ynt a c t i cc aus at i vewi t hi ndi r e c tc aus at i on.Suc hadi f f e r e nc ebr i ngsupanot he r

i mpor t antf a c t or ,na me l y,t het ypeofc a us at i on,whi c hwa snotc ont r ol l e di nt he

c ur r e nte xpe r i me nt .Uponi ns pe c t i on,i tt ur ne doutt ha tal lt hec ont e xt sus e di n

t hee xpe r i me ntha ppe nt obede pi c t i ngi ndi r e c tc a us a t i on,whe r et hec aus e rhad

nophys i c a lc ont a c twi t ht hec a us e e .Gi ve nt hatt hec a us a t i ont ypec ons t i t ut e sa

pot e nt i a lc onf oundi ngf a c t or ,i ti shi ghl yl i ke l yt hatt hei nc or r e c tmappi ngoft he

c a us at i vet ypeand t hedi r e c t ne s sofc a us a t i onl e d s omec hi l dr e nt or e j e c tt he

s e nt e nc e ,e ve nwhe nt her e qui r e de nt a i l me ntr e l at i onwa ss a t i s f i e di nt heEf f e c t

c ondi t i on. Thi s hypot he s i s r e c e i ve s f ur t he r s uppor t f r om s ome of t he

j us t i f i c a t i onst ha tc hi l dr e nga veaf t e rt he yr e j e c t e dt hemor phol ogi c a lc aus a t i vei n

t heEf f e c tc ondi t i on.Thes a mpl ej us t i f i c a t i onsa r er e por t e di n( 6 ) ,s ugge s t i ngt ha t

t he s ec hi l dr e nwe r er e j e c t i nga nys e nt e nc et ha twasi nc or r e c t l yma t c he dwi t ht he

c ont e xtde pi c t i ngi ndi r e c tc a us at i onbe c aus et he ywe r el i nki ngt hemor phol ogi c al

c a us at i veonl ywi t hdi r e c tc a us a t i on.

( 6 )a .Sa mp l ej us t i f i c a t i o na f t e raf a l s er e s po ns e#1 :

“ButDaddi dnotac t ual l yputt hec ar r oti nc hi l d’ smout h. ” b.Sa mp l ej us t i f i c a t i o na f t e raf a l s er e s po ns e#2 :

“Be c aus eMom j us tt ol d Pooh t owe art hes oc ks .Pooh wast heone whoputt he m on. ”

Ba s e d ont he s ej us t i f i c a t i ons ,t hepr opos e d hypot he s i ss e e msr e a s ona bl et o e xpl ai n t her e s ul t s .Howe ve r ,s i nc et hec ur r e nte xpe r i me ntwasnotpr ope r l y de s i gne d t oa ddr e s st hi sma t t e r ,i tr e mai nsanope nque s t i ont obet e s t e d by ma ni pul at i ngt hedi f f e r e ntt ype sofc a us a t i on.

5. General Discussion and Conclusion

Theai m oft hi spa pe rwast oi nve s t i ga t ewhe t he rt woKor e anc a us at i vet ype s

( mor phol ogi c a lands ynt ac t i c )havet hes amee nt a i l me ntpr ope r t i e si nadul tand

c hi l dKor e an.Ther e s ul t soft het woe xpe r i me nt sc a nbes umma r i z e dasf ol l ows :

( i )Kor e a n- s pe a ki ng a dul t s ac c e pt e d t he mor phol ogi c alc aus at i ve whe n t he

c a us e de ve ntt ookpl a c e ,butr e j e c t e di twhe ni tdi dnot ,i ndi c at i ngt her e qui r e d

e nt a i l me ntr e l at i onf ort hemor phol ogi c alc a us a t i ve .( i i )Kor e a n- s pe aki ngc hi l dr e n

a l s or e j e c t e d t hemor phol ogi c a lc a us a t i vewhe nt hec a us e d e ve ntdi d nott ake

pl ac e ,s ugge s t i ngt ha tt he yhada c qui r e dt hee nt a i l me ntr e l a t i ona s s oc i at e dwi t h

i t .( i i i )I nde pe nde ntofe nt ai l me nt ,Kor e an- s pe a ki ng c hi l dr e n a ppe ar t o be

s e ns i t i vet ot het ypeofc aus at i on,i nt ha tt he ys howe d at e nde nc yt ol i nkt he

mor phol ogi c alc a us at i ve onl y wi t h di r e c tc a us a t i on,butnotwi t h i ndi r e c t

c a us at i on.Thi sdi s t i nc t i onmaybee xpl ai ne dbyt heI c oni c i t yPr i nc i pl e( Hai man,

1 98 3) ,pr e s e nt e d i n ( 7 ) ,whi c h pr e di c t s a n e xc l us i ve ma ppi ng be t we e n t he

c a us at i on t ypea nd t hec aus at i vef or m,de pe ndi ngonadi r e c tc or r e s ponde nc e

be t we e n l i ngui s t i cdi s t a nc e( i . e . ,how c l os et hec aus at i vemor phe mei st ot he

ma i n ve r b)a nd c onc e pt ualdi s t anc e ( i . e . ,how di r e c t l y t he c a us e d e ve nti s

e xe c ut e d) .

( 7 )TheI c oni c i t yPr i nc i pl e( Ha i man,1 9 83 ) :

The l i ngui s t i c di s t anc e be t we e n e xpr e s s i ons c or r e s ponds t o t he c onc e pt ua ldi s t anc ebe t we e nt he m.

I n ot he rwor ds ,t hi spr e di c t st ha tt hemor phol ogi c alc a us a t i ves houl d be a s s oc i at e d onl y wi t h di r e c tc a us a t i on gi ve n t he s hor tdi s t anc e be t we e n t he c a us at i veaf f i xa ndt heve r b.I nc ont r as t ,t hes ynt ac t i cc a us a t i ves houl de xpr e s s i ndi r e c tc aus at i on,be c a us e a n i nde pe nde ntwor d h a - t aa c t sa st he c aus at i ve mor phe me and i t s di s t anc e f r om t he mai n ve r b i s made gr e a t e r by t he i nt e r ve ni ngc ompl e me nt i z e r- k e y .Thus ,t heI c oni c i t yPr i nc i pl ec a nbes e e na sa s t r onge rve r s i on oft hedi s t i nc t i on madei n t hel i t e r a t ur eon t hes e mant i c sof Kor e a n c aus a t i ve s ,a s i t pr e di c t s a n e x c l us i ve ma ppi ng be t we e n t he t wo c a us at i ve sa nd t het ypeofc a us a t i on.Wha ti ss ur pr i s i ng,t he n,i st ha tunl i ke t he s e c hi l dr e n who s t r i c t l y adhe r e d t o t he I c oni c i t y Pr i nc i pl e , t he Kor e a n- s pe aki ngadul t swhopa r t i c i pa t e d i n Expe r i me nt1we r ea c c e pt i ng t he mor phol ogi c alc aus at i ve e ve n unde rt he c ont e xtofi ndi r e c tc aus at i on.Thus , t he s ef i ndi ngsr a i s eapos s i bi l i t yt ha tt hedi s t i nc t i onbe t we e nt hec aus at i vef or m a ndt hec a us a t i ont ypei nadul tKor e a nma yha vet odowi t hme r epr e f e r e nc e , whi l e i n c hi l d Kor e a n,i te xhi bi t sa c at e gor i c a lc ont r as ti nvol vi ng I c oni c i t y.

Howe ve r ,a s t he t ype of c a us a t i on was not ma ni pul a t e d i n t he c ur r e nt e xpe r i me nt ,t hei s s ueofbot ha dul t s 'andc hi l dr e n' ss e ns i t i vi t yt owar dt het ype ofc a us a t i oni nc a us a t i ve si sl e f tf orf ut ur er e s e a r c h.

Fi nal l y,t her e s ul t soft hes ynt ac t i cc a us at i vewe r enotdi s c us s e dt hor oughl y, duet ot heune xpe c t e dr e s ul t sf r om Expe r i me nt1 .Ye t ,t hec a s ea l t e r nat i onwa s s ugge s t e dasapot e nt i ale xpl a na t i onf ors uc hr e s ul t s ,whi c hmaybemani pul at e d a s a s e pa r at e f a c t or i n l at e rs t udi e s i n or de r t o s he d s ome l i ghton t he e nt a i l me ntr e l at i onsas s oc i a t e dwi t hKor e a nc a us at i ve si nge ne r a l .

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Jinsun Choe

De par t me ntofEngl i s h

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Se oul13 0- 79 1,Kor e a Phone :0 10 - 3 16 9- 97 19 Emai l :j s c hoe @ha wai i . e du

Received on December 27, 2013

Revised version received on February 28, 2014

Accepted on March 7, 2014