Chapter 9

Chapter 9

Semantics:의미론

홍성심 : 인문대학 영어영문학과



언어의 의미에 대한 지식 혹은 직관을 연구하 는 학문분야



목표 : 모국어 화자가 가지고 있는 의미에 관한 무의식적인 지식을 명시적으로 설명함



Meaning:

• Word meaning

• Sentence meaning (including Phrasal meaning)

What is Semantics ?



John saw her duck. (more than 1 meaning)



Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (?)



a. This is a blue jacket. a. entails b.



b. This is blue.



Have you stopped smoking? (presupposition)



a. This car has two doors which open only from the outside.



(This car may have 4 doors)



b. This car has two doors, which open only from the outside.



(This car is a 2-door car.)

Examples:



Lexicon: 음운적 정보, 통사적 정보 및 의미적 정보



Semantic property: 단어의 기본적인 속성 bachelor: [unmarried], [male]

• Showing meaning relations within a sentence:

• ‘kill’이 ‘cause to die’라는 것을 어떻게 도출하는가?

•

a. *!John killed the fly, but it didn’t die.

•

b. *!John killed the fly, but he was not the cause of the fly’s death.

•

c. *!John caused the fly to die, but it didn’t die.

•

d.*!John caused the fly to die, but he was not the cause of the fly’s death.

Lexical semantics: 어휘의미론

•

Kill—causes one, not necessarily a person, to die

•

Murder—intentionally causes a person to die

•

Assassinate--- intentionally causes a socially prominent figure to die

•

Semantic Argumentation: a case study

•

Q: kill= cause to die?

•

John killed the fly = John caused the fly to die.

•

John killed the fly yesterday.

•

John caused the fly (yesterday) to die (today)



Therefore, kill =/= cause to die

Showing differences between words:



Componential analysis: 단어의 의미는 의미적 복 합체로서 , 기본적 의미를 가진 몇 개의 성분으로 이루어짐



Semantic features: 의미 속성을 + 와 –로 나타내 는 방법, 의미 자질의 수는 아주 많을 수 있지만 간 소화시켜 표시함(잉여 규칙); 의미 자질은 단어의 관련성과 차이점을 포착하는 유용한 장치임



bachelor [+male, -female, -married, +human, +animate…]



boil, fry, steam, broil, sauté, stir-fry — 끓이다, 튀기다, 찌다, 굽다, 직화, 삶다, 중탕하다, 볶다



Anomaly: 문법적인 문장이지만 의미적으로 이상한 문장

• This idea sleeps.

• The theory is purple.



Contradiction: 동시에 참일 수 없는 말을 동시에 참이라고 하는 경우

• John

_i

is here and he

_i

is not here.

• John

_i

has a brother and he

_i

is the only son.

• Cf. My brother John is the only son.

의미적 일탈 (Anomaly)과 은유 (Metaphor)



의미일탈은 자질 사이에 모순 관계가 빚어지기 때문

• This idea sleeps.

• this idea: [-animate];

• sleeps: requires its Sbj to be [+animate]

• The theory is purple.

• the theory: [-matter];

• purple: requires its Sbj to be [+matter] or [+concrete]

• ^{문학작품은} “의도적으로” 의미일탈을 시도하여 작품성이나 상징성등을 높인다. 이를 수사학적 언어 (수사기법, figurative language)이라고 한 다 .

의미 일탈과 의미자질(semantic features)



은유 : 의도적으로 자질억제를 허용하는 표현을 함으로써 화맥 (context)이나 대화자가 가진 세상 적인 지식의 영향을 받음



언어의 유연성 (flexibility) 특징을 표현

• The tree wept in the wind. [-animate] vs. [+animate]

•

^그 나무는 바람 속에서 울었다.

• My car is a lemon. [-fruit] vs. [+fruit]

•

^내 차는 골치덩어리야

(1)은유 (Metaphor)

Shower: John showered his fiancee with gifts. Giving is like dropping from above.

Cloud: The police are concerned that G20 may be clouded over by radical protests.

Protests are an intrusion of light.

Fog: My memory is a little foggy.

Rain: Into each life some rain must fall. Hardship is a precipitate (from above).

Hail: A hail of bullets. (Cold, hard and driven).

Wind: The winds of change. (변화의 바람); ‘변화’= ‘바람’

Sunshine: You are the sunshine of my life. Happiness is light (see "cloud").

Sunset: He'd entered his sunset years. (인생의 황혼기에 접어들다)

Clear skies: It's gonna' be clear skies from now on. (주식시장이 점차 밝아집니다) Lightening rod: The president became a lightening rod for criticism.

Blow: You'll be blown away! Our position is susceptible to sudden change.

Gust: Criticism began to gust in from all sides. (사나운 비판을 면하기 어렵다..) Thaw: Relations between the two countries began to thaw. (남북관계는 꽁꽁 얼어붙어 있다가 최근 해빙무드를 타고 있다)

Thunder: My boss thundered into the office, as soon as I started talking to my friend over the phone. Anger is hostile weather.

Breeze: This course is a breeze; it is an easy task to accomplish.

Dawn: The dawn of civilization. (문명의 개화기)

Cold: It was a cold reception; no one seemed to mingle with others.

Warm & Tepid: It was a warm reception, but the keynote speech was tepid.

Dry spell: The US economy has been suffering a long dry spell. Revenue is the welcome rain of business.

Chilly: It's been a little chilly around the office since Mr. Stuckkup became boss! An office has an emotional climate, which may be invaded by a cold front.

(이 사무실 분위기 매우 썰렁하네…)

Blizzard: There was a blizzard of activity at the emergency room and ICU of the hospital. (Seemingly erratic movement).

Whirlwind: It was a whirlwind romance that spun out of control. Romance may be phenomenal and brief. (바람처럼 스쳐간 로멘스…)

Drift: He was a drifter, of origin unknown. A lack of will is a lack of destination.

Misty: Misty, water-coloured memories... Memories are neither solid nor distinct.

Season: It is the season of change. (변화의 계절)

Winter: She entered a spiritual winter. (그녀는 잠수를 타고 있다)

Autumn: The old couple had entered their autumn years, and yet their finance is still shaky. (=“sunset”)

Twilight: The man entered his twilight years a broken man. (see "sunset")

Darken: The skies of her future began to darken, as soon as she filed for a divorce.

(그녀가 이혼을 신청하면서 그녀의 장래는 어두워지기 시작했다)

Weather: His face was weathered by a long, troubled life. Bad events wear the youth from our face. I had known him in many weathers (난 그 남자의 산전수전 다 알고 있다)

Storm: She was unsure if her proposal could weather (=survive) the storm of scrutiny. Scrutiny is harsh weather to one's ideas.

Bake: It was a half-baked idea; no details on how to implement were unknon.

Boil: My colleague was boiling mad, when he realized that he was demoted.

Pickle: That's a real pickle of a problem. Some problems cannot be resolved, as if preserved indefinitely.

Recipe: A recipe for disaster is carelessness and a recipe for a happy marriage includes love, trust, and money.

Raw: 허각 has a raw talent for music. Talent is only potential, and must be developed (cooked).

Simmer: The crowd began to simmer down. Heat is activity, and activity is heat.

Spicy: She showed up in a spicy new outfit at my party.

Stir: The news must have stirred up all kinds of emotions in him. Our emotions settle into levels in our minds, the top level is the most visible.

Tasty: Tasty tidbits of information. The mind has a palate that prefers certain thoughts and information, and in small, easily digested servings.

Taste: Your wife has great taste in furniture!

Food: Food for thought. The mind is hungry, and eats ideas.

(anything that provides mental stimulus to thinking, 생각할 거리, 마음의 양식)

Dish: She is my dish.

Plate: My plate is already too full. A plate is a flat, limited space for solid thoughts.

Serve: Served up a number of suggestions. Suggestions are food for thought.

Appetite: Mary has an enormous appetite for learning.

Digest: Let us take a moment to digest the information.

Processing data involves breaking down, changing and sorting it.

Swallow: Chomsky’s theory is hard to swallow. Data that is unfit for the mind needs extra effort.



같은 발음, 다른 의미

• bear, rock, fast, kind, like, policy, fine etc.

• see/sea, flower/flour, our/hour etc.



다의성 (Polysemy): 하나의 단어가 여러 개의 의미를 가지며 여러 의미들이 의미자질을 공통 으로 소유하는 경우

• glass (유리, 유리컵, 안경(pl.)--- [+유리])



Q: Is bank homonym or polysemy? Nope!

Historically, ‘bank1’ and ‘bank2’ were spelt differently.

It was a sheer accident that they became homophonous .

동음 이의어 (Homonym)

– Lexical ambiguity:

– ‘She met a guerilla’ is lexically ambiguous because the word ‘guerilla’ is lexically ambiguous with

‘gorilla’

– ‘The area around the mouth is rather uninteresting’

– (mouth of a person, the mouth of a river, the mouth of a cave, the mouth of a bottle, etc)

– Structural ambiguity: 구조적 차이에 따라 두 가지

이상으로 해석되는 경우

• Old men and women

• John saw her duck.

• I like John better than Mary.

Ambiguity (중의성)하나의 표현이 두가지 이상의 의미/해석



모호성 : 의미가 분명히 명시되지 않는 경우

•

John went to school. (by which mean?)

•

John killed an ant. (with intention or without intention?)

 중의성 문장과 모호성 문장의 구별: 중의성 문장은 일치된 해석만을 허 용하며 모호성 문장은 엇갈린 해석을 허용한다. (do so test)

•

^모호성: John went to school and Mary did so, too.

•

^앞 절의 문장이 모호하며 뒷 절의 경우도 엇갈린 모호한 문장해석

이 허용된다

• (John은 (버스타고) 학교에 갔고, Mary도 그랬다(‘걸어서 갔다’도 포함됨)

•

^중의성: John saw her duck and Bill did so too.

•

^앞 절의 문장의 해석과 뒷 절의 해석이 완전히 동일해야 한다

• John은 그녀의 오리를 보았고, Bill도 그랬다. (그녀의 오리를 본 경우만 포함됨)

Vagueness (모호성)

 The student pointed at the mouth , and the teacher did , too

.

(ambiguous sentence)

  The student pointed at the mouth (of the river) and the

teacher did (=point at the mouth of the river/*of the man) too.

 John contacted her.(vague sentence)

 John contacted her (‘by phone, email, post, telepathy’ are all possible)

  John contacted Bill, and Caroline did , too.

 John contacted Bill (by phone), and Caroline did (contact Bill by email) too.

중의적 문장은 VP-생략된 부분이 앞문장과 완전 동일해야 하지만, 애 매한 문장은 VP-생략된 부분이 앞문장과 다른 해석을 가져도 문 법적이다.

VP deletion wrt vagueness vs.ambiguity

• (1) homonym (동음이의어)

• (2) antonym (반의어)

– (i) complementary antonym; life-death, married-single,

– (ii) gradable antonym; happy-sad, dangerous-safe,

– (iii) relational antonym; employee-employer, teacher-student, buy-sell

• (3) synonym (동의어, 유사어)

• (4) hyponym (하위어 ) <-> hypernym (상위어, superordinate)

• house, chalet, cottage, high-rise are hyponyms of ‘building’

• black-eyed Susan, baby’s breath, camellia, poinsettia are hyponyms of ______________.

• Colt, donkey, stallion are hyponyms of _____________.

• ‘red’ is a ____________ of `scarlet', `vermilion', and

`crimson‘ .

• `scarlet', `vermilion', and `crimson‘ are _________ of ‘red’, and also ‘color’. But ‘color’ is a hypernym(=superordinate) of ‘red’,

‘green’, ‘brown’, ‘crimson’, ‘maroon’, and ‘black’

-nym words:



동의어 : 같은 혹은 거의 비슷한 의미를 가지고 있는 단어들;

완벽한 동의어는 없음

•

daddy, dad, father (사용 환경에 따라 다름)

•

postman-mailman (영, 미 영어의 지역적 차이)

•

Beef-cow



동의문 : 뜻이 비슷한 문장: (예:능동과 수동)

•

The police arrested the criminal.

•

The criminal was arrested by the police.

동의어 (Synonym)와 동의문 (Paraphrase)



반의어란? 단어가 가지는 많은 의미자질 중에 서 두 개의 단어가 공통적으로 가지는 자질과 다른 자질이 있을 때 반의어를 찾을 수 있다.



산토끼의 반댓말은?



What is the antonym of the word ‘king’?

반의어 (antonym)

 반의어: 의미가 반대인 단어들이며 단 하나의 의미 속성을 제외하고 다른 모든 의미 자질을 공유함

• ^상보적 반의어 (complementary pairs): alive-dead, married-single, present-absent, exit-enter, raise- lower, push-pull, day-night, right-wrong, saddism- masochism, sink- float, for-against, true-false,

question-answer, accidental-intentional, depart- arrive, former-latter, vacant –occupied, pass-fail, inward-outward,, push–pull

• extinguish- (_____________), inhale - (____________), promote –

(______________), etc.

반의어 (Antonym)의 종류: 3가지

 dark-light, tall-short, hot-cold, best-worst, easy-difficult, hard- soft, wide-narrow, abundant –scarce, knowledge-ignorance, dangerous-safe, wet-dry, old – young

 Fat-thin, old-young, thick-__________

 Hot…Warm… Lukewarm …. Cool….Cold

 Hot … Warm …..( )….. Cold…. freezing (weather)

 Often-rarely, most-least, rich - poor

 dark-light/bright,

등급 반의어 (gradable antonym):

‘animal’ is the hypernym (superordinate) of all the words below.

All the words below ‘animal’ are hyponyms of ‘animal’

관계적 반의어 (Relational antonym/Converses):

under/over, teacher/pupil, wife/husband

관계적 반의어는 일종의 상보적 반의어지만, X와 Y가

동시에 존재해야 한다는 점에서 상보적 반의어와 다름.

즉 반의어의 쌍인 X와 Y는 공존하는 관계에서 그 반의성이 생겨남.

Servant – master, toward-away, child-parent, borrow- lend, employee-employer , teach – learn, teacher- student, husband-wife, above-below, grandparents- grandchildren

 단어의 의미는 ”그 단어가 지칭/지시(reference) 하는 대상(referent) 이다” 입장:

 What is the meaning “an avocado”?

 (guacamole?)

 Meaning of “a car”

 만일 지칭/지시하는 대상이 없는 단어는 의미가 없는 것인가?

Unicorn, dragon, friendship, hippogriff(horse+eagle), griffin (a

winged monster with an eagle-like head and the body of a lion)은 의 미가 없는 단어인가? 아니다.

 만일 지칭/지시하는 대상이 동일한 2 표현은 의미가 같은 것인가? 아 니다

 a morning star vs evening star  Venus (금성)

 Superman 과 Mr. Clark은 동일한 인물을 지시하는데 이 두 표현의 의 미는 같은가? 아니다

지시 (reference)와 의의(sense)



의의 (sense): 한 개체에 대해서 떠오르는 생각,생 각하는 방식이나, 혹은 한 개체를 제시해 주는 방 식이며 지시하는 대상이 없는 단어의 의미를 설 명할 수 있음;



지시에 대한 보완적인 작용을 함



Happiness의 의미는?



Griffin (eagle-like winged monster on the body of a lion, a legendary animal in the fairly tales)



Unicorn의 의미는?



Superman의 의미는?

의미는 의의(sense)이다?



Thematic role: 술어가 표현하는 장면에서 필요로 하는 역할이며 주요하게 전치사구나 명사구로 표 현됨 • Agent, patient, theme, instrument, source, goal,

location etc.

•

John loves Mary.

•

John is in Florida.



의미역의 위계: 비중이 높은 역할을 맡은 표현이 좀 더 높은 자리에 나타난다.

• Agent>Instrument>Theme (UTAH)

• John opened the door with the key.

의미역 (thematic role)



주어와 목적어 의미역은 동사로부터 배당되고 전치사구가 가지는 의미역은 전치사에 의해 명 시적으로 표시된다.



주어와 목적어와 같이 문장에 반드시 나타나야 하는 표현을 논항이라 한다.



전치사구 with the key와 같이 반드시 나올 필 요가 없는 표현을 부가어라 한다.

• John opened the door (with the key).

Thematic role assignment, argument, adjunct



각 논항은 의미역을 가지고 있어야 하되 단 하 나만 가지고 있어야 하고, 동사가 갖고 있는 각 의미역은 배당되어야 하되 단 하나의 논항에 배당되어야 한다.

• John gave * (that book) to Mary.

• John gave that book to Mary (*Bill)



영항 술어 (zero-place) predicate: 주어 자리는 허사 it

• It is raining.



술어의 유형: 논항의 개수에 따라 1항 술어, 2항 술어 , 3항 술어로 구분. (4항 술어: bet)

Theta criterion (의미역 기준)

 (1) Agent : 동작주, 행위역,

 -The puppy chewed up the shoe. / Marty played chess.

 (2) Patient: 수동역

 -The sun melted the ice./Mary cooked the bacon with the white wine

 (3) Theme: 대상역

 -The horse is in the stable/Josh passed the ball to Jeff.

 (4) Experiencer: 경험역

 -Mary felt annoyed/ The referee observed the game/ The deer heard the hunter in the woods./Snakes scare all the hikers

 (5) Beneficiary: 수혜역

 -Mary gave Leo the book/ We bake a cake for Lorian

 (6)Instrument: 도구역

 -My wife flipped the pancakes with a spatula/Miss Scarlet killed the man with a lead pipe.

Typical thematic roles (교재 338쪽)

 (7) Locative:처소역, 처소격, 위치격

 -John ate at the restaurant. / We met each other at Harvard.

 (8) Goal: 목표역

 -John gave the book to Leo / Madam Secretary gave a speech to the club

 (9) Source: 근원역

 -The water bubbled from the spring ./ They came all the way from New Orleans.

 기타 중립역(neutral) 혹은 주제역(topic)

 He is from Africa. This computer weighs 10 kilos.

Thematic roles(Continued

)

 단어의 의미와 의미자질(semantic features)

 성분분석(componential analysis)

 Semantic anomaly와 figurative language

 Homonym & polysemy

 Ambiguity & vagueness

 Synonyms

 Antonyms … complementary, gradable, relational

 Reference & sense

 Meaning of relative clauses

 Entailment & presupposition

 Thematic roles (semantic roles)

9장의 주요개념 Key concepts: