II. Consonants and Vowels
• The initials IPA are used for both the International Phonetic Alphabet and for the International Phonetic Association
which created it.
which created it.
1. Consonants
A. Consonant Chart
Bilabial/
양순음
Labio- dental/
순치음
Dental/
치음
Alveolar/
치경음
Post- alveolar/
경구개치경음
Retroflex
*/ 반전음
Palatal/
경구개음
Velar/ 연 구개음, glottal/
성문음
Stop/ 페쇄 음 or plosive/
파열음
/p/
/b/
/t/
/d/
/k/
/g/
Fricative/
마찰음 /f/
/v/
/ɵ/
/ð/
/s/
/z/
/ʃ/
/ʒ/
Nasal/ 비
음 /m/ /n/ /ŋ/
Approxim ant/ 접근 음
/w/ /l/ /r/ /j/ /h/
Affricate/
파찰음 /tʃ/
/dʒ/
B. Place of Articulation(조음 장소)
• Active articulator and Passive articulator:
– The active articulator usually moves in order to make the
constriction. The passive articulator usually just sits there and gets approached. * constriction [kənstríkʃən] 압축, 수축
• A sound's place of articulation is usually named by using the
• A sound's place of articulation is usually named by using the Latin adjective for the active articulator (ending with an "o") followed by the Latin adjective for the passive articulator. For example, a sound where the tongue tip (the "apex") approaches or touches the upper teeth is called an "apico-dental". Most of the common combinations of active and passive articulator have abbreviated names (usually leaving out the active half).
– apical
[æpikəl, eip-]: 혀끝소리, 설첨음
• These are the abbreviated names for the places of articulation used in English:
– bilabial: 양순음
• The articulators are the two lips. (We could say that the lower lip is the active articulator and the upper lip the lower lip is the active articulator and the upper lip the
passive articulator, though the upper lip usually moves too, at least a little.) English bilabial sounds include /p/, /b/, and /m/.
– labio-dental: 순치음
• The lower lip is the active articulator and the upper teeth are the passive articulator. English labio-dental sounds
include /f/ and /v/.
– dental: 치음
• Dental sounds involve the upper teeth as the passive articulator. The active articulator may be either the
tongue tip or (usually) the tongue blade. Extreme lamino- dental sounds are often called interdental. English
interdental sounds include /ɵ/ and /ð/.
– diacritic [daiəkrítik]: 구별하기 위한; 구별[판별]할 수 있는
– laminal: 얇은 판자[조각] 모양의, 얇은 판자로[조각으로] 된.
– alveolar: 치경음
• Alveolar sounds involve the alveolar ridge as the passive articulator. The active articulator may be either the
tongue blade or (usually) the tongue tip. English alveolar sounds include /t/, /d/, /n/, /s/, /z/, /l/.
– retroflex: 반전음
• In retroflex sounds, the tongue tip is curled up and back. Retroflexes can be classed as apico-
postalveolar, though not all apico-postalveolars need to be curled backward enough to count as retroflex.
• The closest sound to a retroflex that English has is /r/. For most North Americans, the tongue tip is curled back in /r/, though not as much as it is in languages that have true retroflexes. Many other curled back in /r/, though not as much as it is in languages that have true retroflexes. Many other North Americans use what is called a "bunched r" - - instead of curling their tongues back, they bunch the front up and push it forward to form an
approximant behind the alveolar ridge.
– palatal: 경구개음
• The active articulator is the tongue body and the passive articulator is the hard palate. The English glide /j/ is a palatal.
– velar: 연구개음
• The active articulator is the tongue body and the passive articulator is the soft palate. English velars include /k/, /g/, and /ŋ/.
– glottal: 성문음
• This isn't strictly a place of articulation, but they
• This isn't strictly a place of articulation, but they had to put it in the chart somewhere. Glottal
sounds are made in the larynx. For the glottal stop, the vocal cords close momentarily and cut off all airflow through the vocal tract. English uses the
glottal stop in the interjection uh-uh (meaning 'no').
In /h/, the vocal cords are open, but close enough together that air passing between them creates
friction noise.
– larynx: 후두
• Note:
– /w/ is often called a "labio-velar". This doesn't follow the POA (Place of Articulation) naming convention -- it does not mean that the active articulator is the lower lip and you try to touch articulator is the lower lip and you try to touch your soft palate with it! A /w/ is made up of two different approximants: a bilabial approximant and a (dorso-)velar approximant pronounced
simultaneously.
C. Manner of Articulation(조음 방법)
• Constriction degree
– Place of articulation refers to where the
narrowing occurs -- which active articulator gets close to which passive articulator.
gets close to which passive articulator.
Constriction degree refers to how close
they get. The main constriction degrees are:
– stop: 폐쇄음
• The active articulator touches the passive articulator
and completely cuts off the airflow through the mouth.
English stops include: /p/, /d/, /k/, /m/.
– fricative: 마찰음
• The active articulator doesn't touch the passive articulator, but gets close enough that the airflow through the opening becomes turbulent. English fricatives include /f/, /ɵ/, and /z/.
– approximant: 접근음 (마찰이 없는 반모음: 接近音: 조음(調音)기관이 접 근해도 마찰음이 생기지 않는 음; (w), (y), (r), (l) 따위)
• The active articulator approaches the passive articulator, but doesn't even get close enough for the airflow to become turbulent. English approximants include /j/, /w/, /r/, and /l/.
– affricate: 파찰음
• Affricates can be seen as a sequence of a stop and a fricative which have the same or similar places of
articulation. They are transcribed using the symbols for the stop and the fricative. If one wants to emphasize the
affricate as a "single" sound, a tie symbol can be used to join the stop and the fricative (sometimes the fricative is written as a superscript).
D. Notes
• A stop cuts off airflow through the mouth. Airflow through the nose does not matter -- you can have both oral and nasal stops.
Oral stops are often called plosives; nasal stops are usually just called nasals.
• Approximants that are apical or laminal are often called liquids (e.g., /r/, /l/). Approximants that correspond to vowels are often called
glides (e.g., /j/ corresponds to /i/, /w/ to /u/).
glides (e.g., /j/ corresponds to /i/, /w/ to /u/).
• English has the affricates /t/ and /d/. The stop and the fricative halves of these affricates are at the same place of articulation: the stop is in fact postalveolar rather than alveolar. We could be
explicit about this and underline the /t/ and /d/ (in IPA, a minus sign under a symbol is a diacritic meaning "pronounced further
back in the mouth"), but most phoneticians believe this difference in the place of articulation is so predictable that it doesn't have to be marked.
E. State of the glottis
• For now, we can simply use the terms "voiced" and "voiceless" to answer the question of what the vocal cords are doing:
– In voiced sounds, the vocal cords are vibrating.
– In voiceless sounds, the vocal cords are not vibrating.
• Ultimately, we will see there are different ways of being voiced or voiceless. The vocal cords can do a number of things. They can:
– be held so wide apart that the air makes no sound passing through – be held so wide apart that the air makes no sound passing through
them. (This is nice when you have to breathe 24 hours a day, but not as useful for speaking.)
– be held closer together, so that the air passing through them becomes turbulent. This quality of sound is called breathiness. It is what is
happening in aspiration and in the sound /h/.
– be held together so that the air passing
through them causes them to vibrate. This is called voicing.
– be held together so tightly that no air can – be held together so tightly that no air can
pass through at all, as in a glottal stop.
– (By varying their tension and position, the vocal cords can also produce many other
effects like breathy voicing, creaky voicing, and
falsetto.)
– What the vocal cords are doing is independent of what the higher parts of the vocal tract are doing. For any place of articulation and any
degree of stricture, you can get two different sounds: voiced and voiceless.
– For example, /t/ and /d/ are formed identically in the mouth; the difference is that the vocal cords vibrate during a /d/ but not during a /t/.
(The obvious exception is the glottal place of articulation -- you can't vibrate your vocal
cords while making a glottal stop.)
F. Nasality
• The soft palate can be lowered,
allowing air to flow out through the
nose, or it can be raised to block nasal airflow. As was the case with the vocal cords, what the soft palate is doing is cords, what the soft palate is doing is independent the other articulators. For almost any place of articulation, there are pairs of stops that differ only in
whether the soft palate is raised, as in
the oral stop /d/, or lowered, as in the
nasal stop /n/.
G. Laterality: 측음성(側音性)
• When you form an /l/, your tongue tip touches your alveolar ridge (or maybe your upper teeth) but it doesn't create a stop because one or both sides of the tongue are lowered so that air can flow out along the side. Sounds like this with airflow along the sides of the tongue are called lateral, all others are called central (though we usually just assume that a sound is central unless we explicitly say it's lateral).
that a sound is central unless we explicitly say it's lateral).
• The side of the tongue can lower to different degrees. It can lower so little that the air passing through becomes turbulent (giving a lateral fricative like /r/ or / /) or it can lower
enough for there to be no turbulence (a lateral approximant).
The /l/ of English is a lateral approximant.
H. Airstream mechanism
• Speech sounds need air to move. Most sounds (including all the sounds of English) are created by modifying a stream of air that is pushed
outward from the lungs.
• But it's possible for the air to be set in motion in other ways. Sounds which use one of the
other three most common airstream mechanisms
are called ejectives, implosives, and clicks. We'll
discuss these possibilities later in the course.
I. For Example
• A consonant sound can be described completely by specifying each of the parameters for place and manner of articulation.
For example, /k/ has the following properties:
– active articulator tongue body (dorsum) – passive articulator soft palate (velum) – constriction degree stop or plosive – constriction degree stop or plosive – state of glottis voiceless
– nasal no – lateral no
– airstream mechanism normal
• So /k/ is a voiceless oral central dorso-velar stop(plosive).
J. Significant Consonants
/r/ - /l/
• row – low
• rice – lice
• raw – law
• race – lace
• right – light
• rain – lane
• rain – lane
• row – low
• rove – love
• rib – lib
• prank – plank
• pray – play
• right, around, really, area, already, room, report, round, road, result, real, read, run, range, rather, rate, reason, return, recent, various, rice, wrote, running, recently, risk, original, writing, roll,
reading, rise, review, ready, river
• probably, present, price, practice, private,
• probably, present, price, practice, private, president, approach, April, property, press,
previous, program, great, agree, green, degree,
train, try, true, country, control, strong, street,
from, friend, free, front, bring, brought, across,
increase, through, three, children, hundred
• All, will, like, people, only, long, little, called, look, place, well, old, tell, small, still, line, last, left, along, while, below, large, school, children, land, animal, life, almost, live, light, let, you’ll, example, almost, live, light, let, you’ll, example, several, learn, play, himself, usually,
family, plants, living, black, cold, really, table, early, I’ll, close, less, letter, able, English, build, special, full, complete,
feel
/p/ - /f/
• pool - fool
• pine apple - fine apple
• prank - frank
• pork - fork
• pin - fin
• pair - fair
• pair - fair
• pain - fain
• pound - found
• pan - fan
• part - fart
• per - fur
/b/ - /v/
• base - vase,
• bet - vet,
• ban - van,
• boys - voice,
• bind - vine
• bind - vine
• beer - veer
• bat - vat
• saber - saver
• boat - vote
• by - via
/s/ - /z/
• sue - zoo
• seal - zeal
• sen - zen
• sip - zip
• sip - zip
• sap - zap
• sink - zinc
• cyber - zebra
• place - plays
/tʃ/ - /ʃ/
• match - mash
• chin - shin
• chip - sheep - ship
• crutch - crush
• chair - share
• chair - share
• chip - ship
• chuck - shuck
• chore - shore
• cheat - sheet
• cheap - jeep
• trips - chips
/dʒ/ - /ʒ/
• judge [dʒʌdʒ], jump [dʒʌmp], enjoy [endʒɔi], jealous [dʒeləs], jeep, jump, jean, jet, jewelry, jaw, badge, job, juice, journey, jazz, John, joy, joint, jacket, gentleman, jungle, bridge,
manager, image, sausage, edgy, schedule, dangerous
• usual [juʒuəːl], pleasure [pleʒər], rouge [ruːʒ], lesion
• usual [juʒuəːl], pleasure [pleʒər], rouge [ruːʒ], lesion [líːʒ-ən]. vision, treasure, sabotage, television, decision, occasion, vision
– garage [gərɑːʒ, -rɑːdʒ] [US] [gǽrɑːʒ, -
rɑːdʒ] [UK]
• /h/
– old hold old
– art hear tart
– force horse force
– sheet heat sheet
• /w/
– vest west vest
– vest west vest
– of air aware of air
– good would good
– Gwyn win Gwyn
• /j/
– joke yolk joke
– jaw your jaw
– fool fuel fool
– pleasure player pleasure
• In these groups of words, three of the words begin with the same consonant sound and one of the words begins with a different sound. Circle the one with the different sound.
