Geological Characteristics and the Current State of Tight Oil Development of the Eagle Ford Shale, Texas, USA

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ࢠ֝ഔॷਆசଲֿඑ়݁ଵଭ஺ா൉নࢫ౿ࢤૈଵԹࢳ෮จ

จ଴Տ

Â ׌૳ਐ

Geological Characteristics and the Current State of Tight Oil Development of the Eagle Ford Shale, Texas, USA

In-Gul Hwang and Yong-Sik Gihm

Abstract : The Eagle Ford Shale is one of the actively developed tight oil formation in North America. In southwestern Texas, the Eagle Ford Shale is characterized by high carbonate content (more than 70%) and rich in organic content (TOC, 2-8.5%). Its maturity increases southeastward in response to an increase in burial depth.

Daily production rate in “sweep spot” area reaches up to 3,000 BOEPD per well (during a first month). Oil and gas reserves were estimated to be 3 BBO and 20 TCF, respectively, which can further be increased with an increase in well density and an advance in production technology. In 2012, 0.38 MMB/D of oil, 0.11 MMB/D of condensate, and 2 BCF/D of natural gas were produced, and it is expected that oil and condensate production will reach 0.75 MMB/D in 2015. Insufficient gas pipelines and drilling materials with recent decline in gas price hinders the development of oil from the Eagle Ford Shale. Furthermore, because of social issues such as water shortage, prices increase, and traffic congestion, solving social problem is more important compared to a capital and a technology.

Key words : Eagle Ford Shale, Tight oil, Condensate, Calcareous marlstone, Social issue

څ أ ۋŘप˚ՕێڹҚйقԴÀۤটь০ÒьʼČەə࠘н١ێࠗۋɰ. ࢭԐ֟ܳǫԴҙقқपॠə

ۋŘप˚ՕێڹԵধݗՁқۋ70% ۋԜۋ϶, ڮşНۋॄҙॠČ(TOC, 2-8.5%), ՁվʪəϔЃ֮ʪÀŪرݙ ق˰͆ǫʴޅڷͿÄս΀ݒÀॢɰ. “Sweet Spot”ݓًۆߣş1ÒښÂԵڮԦԓ͟ڹėɾ߯ʂ3,000 BOEPD Ϳϔڍψڷ϶, ԵڮфÀ֟ϔۤ͟ڹÁÁ30زѕͣф20 TCFͿ, ۋə֨߸нʪфԦԓşցۆьɵͿ

ۍ३ʌڎݒÀॣìڷͿ҃ۍɰ. 2012ț, ێԓ38χѕͣۆԵڮф11χѕͣۆ࠸ʜՃۋ࣡, 2 BCFۆÀ֟À

Ԧԓʼؽڷ϶, 2015țԵڮф࠸ʜՃۋ࣡ۆԦԓ͟ڹ߯ʂێԓ75χѕͣقۋεìڷͿٚԜʽɰ. ҙܔॢ

À֟ࣷۋ॒͆ۍę֨߸ۙۦ, ߯Ŗॠ͇ॢÀ֟Àüقۆ३ۋŘप˚ՕێۆԵڮÒьڹ܃أںыČەɰ. ۋٮ

ʌҝرՕێۋÒьʿق˰͆НÀԜ֧, Нҙܔ, İࣀߕݒۋьԦʿق˰͆, ۙ҆фԦԓşց҃ɰəԐধЛ܃

३ĀۋۋݓًۆԵڮÒьقەرܼڅę܃Ϳʂ˃ʼČەɰ.

ܳڅر ۋŘप˚Օێ, ࠘н١ێ, ࠸ʜՃۋ࣡, Եধݗۋধؒ, ԐধЛ܃

2013ț7ښ9ێۿս, 2013ț9ښ27ێ֮ԐٰΒ 2013ț12ښ12ێóۦঝ܁

1) ॢĶݓݗۙڙٍĵڙԵڮ३۹ٍĵ҆ҙ 2) ęॡşցٍ०ʂॡڙʂॡİԵڮۙڙėॡę

*Corresponding Author(ডۍè) E-mail; [email protected]

Address; Petroleum and Marine Research Division, Korea Institute of Geosciences and Mineral Resources, (305-350) 124 Gwahang-no Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Korea

ISSN 2288-2790(online) http://dx.doi.org/10.12972/ksmer.2013.50.6.875

Դ΁

ۋŘप˚ Օێ(Eagle Ford Shale)ڹ йĶ ࢭԐ֟ ܳ

ǫҙٮΘۋݓؙǣܳقқपॠəі؊ş঳şࣅۺࠗڷ Ϳ, ҚйݓًقԴȤ֟ɰࡑࢍܳфЂࢍǣܳۆцࡂՕ ێ(Bakken Shale)ęʌҝرՕێ١ێ(shale oil) Òьۋ

টь০ۋΘرݓČەɰ(Fig. 1). ࢭԐ֟ǫԴҙݓًۆ

ۋŘप˚ՕێڹڮşНۆ॥͟ۋ(TOC) 2-8.5%Ϳϔڍ

ȭČ, 70% ۋԜۋԵধݗġНͿĵՁʼرەɰ. ̚ॢ

֬νࠢۆ॥͟ʪȭ؉(15%) տսॢ۾ࢹġНۆ॥͟ڹ

15%قҝęॠɰ. ˰͆ԴۋŘप˚ՕێڹԵধݗۋধ ३ Ժ

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Fig. 1. Well distributions on the Eagle Ford Shale in southwest Texas (modified from Hunt, 2012).

ؒق३ɾʼ϶, يşԴԦԓʼəԵڮəعüॢۆйͿ

҃؉ Օێ١ێۋ͆ş҃ɰə ࠘н١ێ(tight oil)ق ३ɾ ʽɰ(Mills, 2008). ۾ࢹġНͿۋΘرݕێъۺۍՕێ قҼ३սؓࣷթÀڌۋॠي࠘н١ێۆÒьфԦԓ قڮνॠɰ. ইۦॢĶԵڮėԐÀйĶAnadarkoԐٮ

ėʴڷͿ ࠘н١ێں ÒьॠČ ەڷ϶, лÂ şغڷͿ

ٚ֟ࡑԐÀ޷يॠيÒьॠČەڷǣ, ॳ঳ĶǴşغۆ

ݕ߻ۋ ʌ ज़څॢ ݓًۋɰ.

ۋŘप˚Օێۆश֩ݓəࢭԐ֟ܳۆɵ͆֟(Dallas) ۍŖۆ ۋŘप˚ ࢍڏۋǣ, ڮşНۆ ॥͟ۋ ॄҙॠČ

࠘н١ێۆԦԓۋÀɠॢݓًڹࢭԐ֟ܳǫԴҙق

ڦ࠘ॢɰ. ÀۤটьॢÒьۋۋΘرݓəݓًڹʴԴ Ϳأ400υێǫҚڷͿأ50υێق३ɾʼ϶, 2012ț

12ښইۦأ300ʂۆ֨߸şقۆ३ÒьۋݕॱʼČ

ەɰ. 2012țϊԵڮə380,000 B/D(Barrel Per Day),

࠸ʜՃۋ࣡ə116,000 B/D, À֟ə2,000 MMCFD(Million Cubic Feet Per Day)ÀԦԓʼČەɰ(Railroad Commission of Texas, 2013). ۋŘप˚Օێڹॳ঳ԵڮфÀ֟Ò

ьфԦԓقϔڍܼڅॢݓًۋ϶, ٍ҆ĵقԴəۋŘ प˚ՕێۆԵڮݓݗфÒьইডęۋŘप˚Օێں

Òьॣ ąڍ ČͲ३آॣ ԐধЛ܃ق ʂ३ Č޶ॢɰ.

ġًݓݗ

ࢭԐ֟ܳۆі؊şݓࠗڹČԦʂऎй؋қݓ(Permian Basin)ۆࣅۺࠗԜҙقҙ܁०ڷͿࣅۺʼؽɰ. ऎй؋

қݓۆࣅۺࠗقԴə1920țʂҙࢢԵڮÀԦԓʽۋ͒

ͿইۦūݓϔڍটьॢԵڮÒьۋۋΘرݓČەڷ

϶, ࣢০߯Ŗق˞رٮڍ˚प˚Օێ(Woodford Shale) фԜҙۆй֨֨क़؋Եধؒ(Mississippian Limestone) ˣقԴ ՕێÀ֟ ф࠘н١ێۋ ÒьʼČ ەɰ.

ۋŘप˚ Օێڹ і؊ş ϊ Ϯ֨ࡑ χ қݓ(Gulf of Mexico Basin)قԴࣅۺʽݓࠗۋɰ. Ϯ֨ࡑχқݓۆ

঍ՁڙۍфŔݕজقʂॢÀԺڹɰتॠɰ. ۋܼ, ࣺ ó؉(pangea) қَԺق˰βϸ, Ϯ֨ࡑχқݓə࣡͆

ۋ؉֟şܼşقԴі؊şߣş, Қ؉ϭνࠢʂΫࣺ(North

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(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 2. Schematic models for tectonic history of the Gulf of Mexico (Modified from Escalona and Yang, 2013).

Note a counterclockwise rotation of the Yucatan block and spreading of oceanic plate in the Gulf of Mexico.

America Plate)ęǫ؉ϭνࠢʂΫࣺ(South America Plate) ۋ қνʼ϶ ঍Ձʼؽɰ(Pindell et al., 2006; Galloway, 2008). ࣡͆ۋ؉֟ş ܼşقԴ ݇͆ş ߣş, ࣺó؉ۆ

қَͿۍ३ইۦʂԴتܼؖ३ͺۍŖڹġѩڦॢۍ

ۤͳۋۚڌॠٕČ, ۋͿۍ३Ϯ֨ࡑχқݓۍŖقə

ݓĵ(graben) фъݓĵ(half-graben)ÀьɵॠيگՁࣅ ۺНۋ ࣅۺʼؽɰ(Bird et al., 2011; Escalona and Yang, 2013)(Fig. 2(a)). ݇͆ş ܼşقə ইۦ ࢭԐ֟

३؋قڦ࠘३ەʏڮࠢ࢏ݓĨ(Yukatan Block)ÀҚ Դ-ǫʴ ɳࠗʂε ˰͆ ъ֨ćѓॳڷͿ ধۻॠ϶ ǫޅ

ڷͿ ۋʴॠş ֨ۚॠٕɰ(Pindell et al., 2006). ̚ॢ

Қ؉ϭνࠢٮڮࠢ࢏ݓĨԐۋۆ۹ݓεࣀ३ࢗथتۆ

३սÀϮ֨ࡑχқݓͿڮۓʿق˰͆қݓǴقثڹ

ߎ३ঞąۋ ঍Ձʼؽڷ϶, ۋ঳ ࢗथتڷͿҙࢢ ३ս ۆ ڮۓۋ ܃ॢʼۙ ݒьؒڷͿ ĵՁʽ Ϳڍ؋ ّؒࠗ

(Louann Salt)ۋࣅۺʼؽɰ(Fig. 2(b)). ۋ঳, ݇͆ş঳

şقԴі؊şߣ, ݓ՚ۺۍۍۤͳقۆ३Ϯ֨ࡑχқݓ

ܼҙقşܕɳَфঝۤ߹ں˰͆३تݓÁۋ঍Ձʼؽ ڷ϶(Galloway, 2008), Ϯ֨ࡑχқݓٮʂԴتۋٍĀ ʼؽɰ(Fig. 2(c)). і؊şߣş, ъ֨ćѓॳڷͿধۻॢ

ڮࠢ࢏ݓĨÀ ইۦۆ ڦ࠘(Ϯ֨ࡑ ǫʴҙ)ق ʪɵॠٕ

ڷ϶, Ϯ֨ࡑχқݓقԴ३تݓÁں঍Ձॢ֮ҙϖࣥ

॔Μ(deep mantle plume)ęϮ֨ࡑχқݓۆঝۤ߹ۋ

ɳۼʿق˰͆३تݓÁ঍Ձфঝۤۋܼɳʼر, ইۦ ۆ ݓ঍ۋ ঍Ձʼؽɰ(Bird et al., 2011).

݇͆şقԴі؊şūݓ३تݓÁۆ঍Ձфঝۤęě ʹʽَۺࠞÌۋێرǮڷ϶, ֪ԦʂقəࣅۺНۆ˃ƍ ÀݒÀ॥ق˰͆ࣅۺॠܼ(sediment load)قۆॢࠞÌ ۋڍՃॠóۚڌॠٕɰ(Galloway, 2008). Ϯ֨ࡑχқ ݓəࢗथتࣺۆԾۓ՚ʪфԾۓѓॳۆѺজقۆॢ

ࣺǴڿͳ(intraplate stress)ۆѺজق˰͆Âॷۺۍڵş ÀьԦॠيԓυβࡑ֟؉࠘(San Marcos Arch), Ԑц ۍ؉࠘(Sabine Arch)ˣۋ঍Ձʼؽڷ϶, ۋͿۍ३і

؊şݓࠗф֪ԦʂࣅۺࠗǴقąԐҙ܁०ۋ঍Ձʼ şʪ ॠٕɰ(Laubach and Jackson, 1990).

ࠗԴфࣅۺঞą

ۋŘप˚ՕێۋÒьʼČەəࢭԐ֟ǫԴҙəČԦ ʂऎй؋қݓۆࣅۺࠗԜҙقϮ֨ࡑχқݓۆܼԦ ʂф֪Ԧʂݓࠗۋࣅۺʼرەɰ. ܼԦʂф֪Ԧʂ

ݓࠗڹࢭԐ֟ܳقԴҙࢢ॔Ϳνɰܳūݓȉڹݓًق

èߝ ɰتॢ ࣅۺঞąقԴ ࣅۺʼؽɰ. ˰͆Դ ؒԜۆ

սथѺজÀϔڍ֮ॠдͿ, ÁݓࠗۆࠗԴεϿ˃êࢹ ॠəìڹٍ҆ĵۆЀۺقҙ०ʼݓ؍əɰ. ˰͆Դ҆

ٍĵقԴəۋŘप˚ՕێۋÒьʼČەəࢭԐ֟ǫҙ

ݓًۆ ܼԦʂ ݓࠗق ʂ३ Č޶ॠČۙ ॢɰ.

࣡͆ۋ؉֟ş-݇͆ş

ऎй؋қݓۆČԦʂݓࠗԜҙقəɑٯࠗķ(Newark Group)ۋҙ܁०ڷͿࣅۺʼؽɰ. ۋࠗķڹČԦʂݓ

ࠗę݇͆şݓࠗԐۋقқपॠəࣅۺࠗڷͿ঳ş࣡

͆ۋ؉֟şقԴߣş݇͆şقࣅۺʽìڷͿ३Եʽɰ (Mancini et al., 1990)(Fig. 3). ࢭԐ֟ǫҙݓًقԴə

ČԦʂݓࠗۆԜҙقۺԟۆҼ३Ձ֬࣡֟ࢻęԐؒڷ

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Fig. 3. Generalized Mesozoic-Cenozoic stratigraphic chart of the Gulf of Mexico coastal plain with reservoir and source rock potential (Hackley and Ewing, 2010).

ͿĵՁʽۋŘн(Eagle Mill)ࠗڷͿĵՁʼرەɰ. ݓ

ًق ˰͆ ঒Ձ ࣅۺࠗۋ ǣࢍǣşʪ ॢɰ.

ۋŘнࠗۆԜҙə݇͆şۆّս঒قԴࣅۺʽڗȃ (Werner)ࠗۋ܁०ۺڷͿȮۍɰ. ڗȃࠗۆԜҙəϮ֨

ࡑχۋٽ३ٮێ֨ۺڷͿٍĀʽ঳ɰ֨ٽ३ٮɳۼ ʼر঍ՁʽͿڍ؋ّؒۋǣࢍǦɰ. Ϯ֨ࡑχۋɰ֨

ٽ३ٮٍĀʼϸԴͿڍ؋ّؒࠗۆԜҙقԸԜݓ, ॠ Ձ, Ԑφфٍ؋, ʂΫңقԴթԺՁࣅۺНۋ঍Ձʽ

Ȥच࣡(Norphelt)ࠗۋ ࣅۺʼؽɰ. ݇͆ş ঳şق ˞ر ٮ३սϸԜ֧ęʌҝرߎ३ݓًقə࢏ԓّؒęՕێ Ϳ ĵՁʽ ֟Ϯ١ѣ(Smackover)ࠗۋ ࣅۺʼؽɰ. ֟Ϯ ١ѣࠗۆ࢏ԓّݗՕێقəɰ͟ۆڮşНۋप॥ʼر

ەر߯Ŗ࠘н١ێ۹ΪࠗڷͿÒьۋݕॱܼۋɰ. ֟ Ϯ١ѣࠗԜҙۆॽۋȐ֟ҿ(Haynesville)ࠗڹߎ३ঞą قԴࣅۺʼؽڷ϶, ܼҙٮԜҙۆՕێф࢏ԓّۋॄ

ҙॢۋؒڹՕێÀ֟ф࠘н١ێ۹ΪࠗڷͿÁġы

Č ەɰ(Fig. 3).

ॽۋȐ֟ҿՕێࠗۆԜҙə݇͆ş঳şقॠߎ, Ԙ Áܳфߎ३ঞąقԴࣅۺʽՕێфԐؒڷͿĵՁʽ

ࡑࣣѲν(Cotton Valley)ࠗۆࣅۺНۋٽ३Ϳۻݕĵ߹

(progradation)ॠ϶ ࣅۺʼؽɰ(Galloway, 2008). ٽ३

ݓًڹ҃֨رՕێ(Bossier Shale)ۋࣅۺʼؽڷ϶(Fig.

3), ۋًࠗ֨ॽۋȐ֟ҿՕێࠗęÏڹܼڅॢՕێÀ

֟ ф ࠘н١ێ ۹Ϊࠗ ًॣںॢɰ.

і؊şߣş

ࡑࣣѲνࠗۆԜҙقəܳͿॠߎ, ԘÁܳфߎ३ঞ ąقԴࣅۺʽ࣡ͪҼ֟क़ࡾ(Travis Peak)ࠗ(Hosstonࠗ

ڷͿʪҝρ)ۋࣅۺʼؽɰ(Dutton, 1987)(Fig. 3). ۋ঳

३ࠞۋݕॱʼϸԴۋࠗۆԜҙəߎ३ф࢏ԓّʂΫ ң(ԓ঒ߣ, Ե঒ˣ)ঞąقԴࣅۺʽ֢νČ(Sligo)ࠗۋ

ǣࢍǦɰ(Bebout, 1977).

ۋ঳, Aptian ঳ş(115Ma)ق˞رٮϮ֨ࡑχقԴə

३ࠞۋێرǣ϶˃ƃڏक़رԺՕێ(Pearsall Shale)ࠗ

ۋࣅۺʼؽɰ. ࢭԐܼ֟ʴҙݓًقԴۋࠗڹ˃ƍÀ

500-600 ft ܁ʪۋ϶, ڮşНۆ॥͟ڹ0.17-2.97% ܁ʪ Ϳت঒ॢŖڙًؒॣںॢɰ. ܳͿType-IIIۆࡀͿ܅

ڷͿĵՁʼرەڷ϶ڮşНۆՁվʪə1.5-2.3% Ro

Ϳ À֟Ձվɳćق ३ɾʽɰ.

क़رԺՕێࠗԜҙقəߎ३ঞąقԴࣅۺʽ Եধ

ؒ, Եধݗۋؒę३ѺقԴࣅۺʽԐؒڷͿĵՁʽŘͬ

Ϳ݋(Glen Rose)ࠗۋ ࣅۺʼؽɰ(McFarlan and Menes, 1991). ŘͬͿ݋ࠗԜҙقəܳͿԵধؒڷͿĵՁʽ॒

ͪ˚ξ֟ѣŔ(Fredricksburg)ࠗķۋқपॢɰ. ۋࠗڹݓ

ًق ˰͆ ֟ࣜر࣯࣡֨ Եধؒ(Stuart City Limestone)

ࠗڷͿʪҝν϶, ٽ३ޅقəՕێͿۋΘرݕ؉ࢍ֟

ࡑԐ(Atascosa)ࠗۋ қपॢɰ(Fritz et al., 2000). Ԝҙ

ٮ֨ࢍࠗķ(Washita Group)ڹ۹३սϸ֨şقࣅۺʼ ؽɰ. ٮ֨ࢍ ࠗķǴۆ ҙɰԵধؒ(Buda Limestone)ࠗ

ڹԜʂۺڷͿٽ३قԴԓ঒ߣۆьɵͿ঍Ձʼؽڷ϶, ࢭԐ֟ܳǫԴҙۆܳڅ࠘нÀ֟ф࠘н١ێ۹Ϊࠗ

ۋɰ.

і؊ş঳ş

і؊şۻşٮ঳şԐۋقə۹३սϸ֨şقࣅۺʽ

ҙɰ Եধؒࠗۋ ঍Ձʼؽڷ϶, ۋ঳ ۋŘप˚ Օێۋ

ࣅۺʼؽɰ(Fig. 3). ۋŘप˚Օێڹ३սϸۋԜ֧ॠə

ʴ؋ࣅۺʽԵধݗՕێͿĵՁʼرەɰ. ۋࠗڹΘۋ ݓؙǣܳۆ࣊֟ࠥΘԐՕێ(Tuscaloosa Shale)ęʂҼ ʽɰ(Mancini et al., 1987). ۋŘप˚ՕێфۋقʂҼ ʼəՕێࠗڹϮ֨ࡑχۍŖݓًقԴÀܼۤڅॢŖ

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Fig. 4. Regional depositional models at the time of deposition of the Eagle Ford Shale (source: http://eaglefordshale.com/

geology/).

Fig. 5. Schematic depositional model during the deposition of the Eagle Ford Shale (after Tuttle, 2012). Note a reef at shelf margin which restricted water circulation between lagoonal bottom water and open sea, resulting in reduction conditions of lagoonal bottom water.

ڙًؒॣںॠي, ۋࠗقԴԦՁʽԵڮфÀ֟əԜ ڦۆܼԦʂݓࠗф֪Ԧʂݓࠗۆ۹ΪࠗڷͿۋʴॠ يݚۺʼؽɰ(Fig. 3). ۋŘप˚ՕێԜҙقə३սϸ ۋۦԜ֧ॠϸԴࣅۺʽ١ࣱ֟߶ࡾ(Austine Chalk)À

Ȯۍɰ. ١ࣱ֟߶ࡾəࢭԐ֟фΘۋݓؙǣܳقԴ࠘

нÀ֟ۆܼڅॢ ۹Ϊࠗ ًॣں ॢɰ(Fig. 3).

١ࣱ֟߶ࡾࠗۆԜҙۆܼԦʂࣅۺࠗڹ࢏ԓّؒф

ԵধݗՕێ, ԘÁܳԐؒˣۋঊ܃ʼرǣࢍǣ϶, Ԝڦ ۆ֪Ԧʂݓࠗڹі؊şݓࠗقҼ३ԵধݗՁқۋۺ ڹۻ঍ۺۍթԺՁٍ؋ф३تঞą(ॠߎ, ԘÁܳ, ३

Ҿ, ߎ३, ʂΫԐϸˣ)قԴࣅۺʽԐؒфՕێͿĵՁ ʼر ەɰ(Galloway, 2008).

ۋŘप˚Օێۆࣅۺۚڌфࣅۺঞą

і؊ş ʴ؋Ϯ֨ࡑχۍŖݓًڹ ؉َʂş঳قԴ

˃ƃڏԵধؒۋьɵॠٕɰ. ۋŘप˚Օێॠҙۆۋ

ԵধؒࠗڹʂΫңɳ(shelf break) ۍŖԓ঒ߣقԴࣅ ۺʼؽɰ(Fig. 5). ۋԵধؒڹࣅۺ֨şق˰֢͆νČ

Եধؒ(Sligo Limestone), ֟ࣜر࣯࣡֨Եধؒ, ق˚ڗ

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Fig. 7. Subsurface isopach map of the Eagle Ford Shale (after Matsutsuyu, 2011).

Fig. 6. TOC map of the Eagle Ford Shale. Note a high TOC values in the lower Eagle Ford Shale (Modified from Cardneaux, 2010).

˚Եধؒ(Edward Limestone) фҙɰԵধؒڷͿĵқ ʽɰ(Galloway, 2008). ҙɰ Եধؒࠗۋ ࣅۺʽ ۋ঳

Cenomanian֨ş(92 Ma)ق ३սϸۋ Ԝ֧ॠي Ϯ֨ࡑ

χۍŖݓًۆԓ঒ߣə३սϸ؉͒Ϳ۠şóʼؽڷ

϶, ŔԜҙقəڮşНۋॄҙॢۋŘप˚Օێࠗۋࣅ ۺʼؽɰ.

ࢭԐ֟ܳۆɵ͆֟ۍŖݓًقԴəڍ˚цۍॠߎ߹

(Woodbine Fluvial Axis)ں˰͆թԺՁࣅۺНۋėś ʼؽɰ(Turner and Conger, 1984)(Fig. 4). ɵ͆֟ۍŖ ݓًڹ ۋŘप˚ Օێۆ श֩ݓͿԴ, ۋŘप˚ Օێۆ

˃ƍəأ500 ftͿࢍݓًقҼ३˃ƉóǣࢍǦɰ. ۋ قъ३࠘н١ێۋÒьʼəࢭԐ֟ܳǫԴݓًڹآ Ȥڵşʂ(Liano Uplift)ۆٍۤԸۍԓυβࡑ֟؉࠘ق

ۆ३ թԺՁ ࣅۺНۆ ėśۋ ܃ॢʼؽڷ϶(Galloway, 2008), ʂΫңɳقԴ֮ࠗսۆڌ֧ڷͿۍ३शࠗڷͿ

ٖتқۋėśʼرڮşНۋॄҙ০঍Ձʼؽɰ(Fig. 4).

ۋٮʌҝرێҙݓًقə݇͆şق঍ՁʽͿڍ؋ؒ

ّۆڵş(salt tectonics)Ϳۍ३ٽ३ٮۆٍĀۋ޲ɳ ʼؽɰ(Fig. 5). ̚ॢ, ս٣أࠗ(thermocline)قۆ३श

ࠗսٮ֮ࠗսۆտঞۋ܃ॢʿęʴ֨ق३սϸॠҙق

ڦ࠘ॢԓ঒ߣقۆ३۹ࠗսً֨ٽҙٮۆտঞۋɳ ۼʼۙঞڙঞą(reduction condition)ۋ঍Ձʼرࠞۻ ʽ ڮşНۋ ҃ܕʼؽɰ(Tuttle, 2012)(Fig. 5).

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Fig. 8. Maturity trend and southeastward changes in physical properties of the Eagle Ford Shale in response to an increase in burial depth. Contours represent burial depth of the Eagle Ford Shale (after Matsutsuyu, 2011).

Table 1. Physical properties of the Eagle Ford Shale (after Javie, 2012) Eagle Ford Shale (Average) Gross thickness

(ft) 100-300 Silica Content

(%) 15 Permeability

(nD)

700-3,000 (1,000)

TOC (wt.%)

2.0-8.5 (2.76) Net thickness

(ft) 150-300 Clay content

(%) 15 Vitrinite Reflectance (%Ro)

0.8-2.6 (1.2)

First year Decline

(gas, %) 70

Porosity

(%) 6-14 Carbonate content

(%) 60 Hydrocarbon Index 80 Average EUR

(horiz.)(gas, bcfe) 1.4

* EUR = estimated ultimate recovery; bcfe = Barrels of oil equivalent per acre-foot; horiz. = horizontal well ࢭԐ֟ǫԴࠑقқपॠəۋŘप˚ՕێڹڮşНۆ

॥͟ۋ4-7%قۋε܁ʪͿϔڍॄҙॠɰ. ʂΫңɳۋ

ڦ࠘ॠʏࢭԐ֟ǫҙقԴəҚҙقҼ३ۋŘप˚Օێ ǴۆԵধНݗۋॄҙॠ϶, ԵধݗԐؒфԐݗԵধؒ

ʪİ঒ॠČەɰ. ۋ঳Ԑцۍ؉࠘ÀڵşॠϸԴ, Ԝҙ ͿÄս΀ս֮ۋث؉ݓəąॳ(shallowing-upward trend) ۋǣࢍǣ϶, ۋق˰͆ՕێǴقڮşН॥͟ۋÇՙॠ əъϸԵধݗНݗۆ॥͟ڹݒÀॢɰ(Fig. 6). 88 Ma ąق ˞رٮ ۻݓĵۺ ३սϸۋ Ԝ֧ॠϸԴ, ۋŘप˚

Օێࠗ Ԝҙقə ١ࣱ֟ ߶ࡾࠗۋ ࣅۺʼؽɰ.

ࢭԐ֟ǫԴҙݓًقԴۋŘप˚ՕێۆथŒ˃ƍə

أ250 ft ܁ʪۋǣ߯ʂ400 ftقɵॠ϶, ࣅۺɾ֨ڵş

ॢԓυβࡑ֟؉࠘ݓًڹԜʂۺڷͿ˃ƍÀئڹठ

ۋɰ(Fig. 7). ъϸ ԓυβࡑ֟ ؉࠘ ʴࠑڹ ڍ˚цۍ

ॠߎ߹ڷͿҙࢢ թԺՁࣅۺНۋ ėśʼر ԜʂۺڷͿ

˃ƃڍ϶(> 500 ft), ڮşНۆ ॥͟ۋ ǰɰ.

ۋŘप˚ՕێۆԵڮݓݗॡۺ࣢ݜ

ࢭԐ֟ ǫԴҙݓًقԴ ۋŘप˚ Օێڹ शࠗقԴҙ ࢢ2,000 ft ॠҙقڦ࠘ॠ϶, ֮ʪəǫʴޅڷͿÄս΀

Ūر܋߯ʂ16,000 ft ॠҙقڦ࠘ॢɰ(Fig. 8). ˰͆Դ

ڮşНۆՁվʪً֮֨ʪق˰͆ǫࠑڷͿÀϸԴݒ Àॢɰ. ݌, ۋŘप˚Օێۋڦ࠘ॢ֮ʪق˰͆3,000- 9,000 ftقԴəԵڮԦՁɳć(oil window), 6,000-1,2000 ftقԴə ֥ՁÀ֟ ԦՁɳć(wet gas window), ŔνČ

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Fig. 9. A map showing variable origins of natural fractures in the Eagle Ford Shale (modified from Matsutsuyu, 2011).

12,000 ft ۋԜۆ֮ʪقԴəæՁÀ֟ԦՁɳć(dry gas window)ق३ɾʽɰ(Fig. 8). ߪڮş࢏ՙ(TOC)ۆ॥͟

ڹ2-8.5%Ϳϔڍȭڹठۋ϶, ҚҙфԴҙݓًڹթ ԺՁࣅۺНۆėśۋψ؉ԜʂۺڷͿڮşНۆ॥͟ۋ

ۺɰ(Fig. 6). ԜҙĵÂڷͿÄս΀࢏ԓّࣅۺНۋݒ ÀϸԴڮşНۆ॥͟ʪÇՙॠي, ԜҙĵÂقԴəߪ ڮş࢏ՙ॥͟ۋ2-5%Ϳǰ؉ݕɰ. қݓԴҙϮ֨ࡑٮ ۆĶąݓًۍŖقԴəڮşНۆՁվʪÀȭ؉ݓəą ॳں҃ۍɰ. ǫࠑڷͿÀϸԴ֮ʪÀݒÀॠəěćͿ

ǫޅڷͿÄս΀Ԧԓʼə࢏জսՙۆAPI ҼܼڹݒÀ ॠČ, ėŕۆ ؓͳʪ ݒÀॢɰ(Fig. 8).

ۋŘप˚ՕێۋÒьʼəࢭԐ֟ǫԴҙݓًقԴė ŕέڹ6-14%Ϳϔڍȭڹठۋɰ(Table 1). ԜҙĵÂق Դ7-12%ͿɰՙÇՙॠݓχۋəێъۺۍՕێقҼ ३ϔڍȭڹठۋɰ. ۋə۾ࢹġНͿۋΘرݕՕێق

Ҽ३࢏ԓّġНۋॄҙॠČ, ՕێǴۆ֬νࠢ॥͟ۋ

ȭ؉ ԦՁʽ Եڮ ф À֟ق ۆ३ ٍۙŒَ(natural fracture)ۋ঍Ձʼرėŕέф࣊սڱۋݒÀॠٕş˺

Лۋɰ(Matsutsutu, 2011).

ۋŘप˚ ՕێقԴ ٍۙŒَڹ ܁͟জॠş رͲڍǣ

ԓυβࡑ֟؉࠘, Ԑцۍ؉࠘ˣۆ঍Ձęěʹʽĵܓ ڏʴ, ʂΫңɳۍŖݓًقԴқݓÀࠞÌॠϸԴ঍Ձʽ

Œَ, ॠҙۆͿڍ؋ّؒࠗۆۋʴ, ŔνČԵڮٮÀ֟

À঍ՁʼϸԴێرǦęؓ(overpressure) ইԜˣɰتॢ

ڙۍقۆ३঍ՁʽìڷͿ߸܁ʽɰ(Matsutsutu, 2011)

(Fig. 9). ࠘н١ێф࠘нÀ֟εÒьॠəʚەرێ܁

ॢѓॳۆٍۙŒَڹ֨߸ćনںՃڍəʚەرܼڅॠ ǣ(Gihm et al., 2011), ՕێÀ֟фՕێ١ێںԦԓॠ əҚйݓًۆɰδՕێࠗęəɵνۋŘप˚ՕێقԴ ۆ ٍۙŒَۆ ő࠙Ձڹ ঝۍʼݓ ؍əɰ(Matsutsutu, 2011).

ÒьԐфÒьইড

ࢭԐ֟ǫԴҙݓًڹ1900țʂۋ͒ͿԵڮۆ࢒Ԑ

фÒьۋটь০ۋΘر܋ٵɰ. ۋŘप˚ՕێقԴə

şܕۆսݔ֨߸܁ںࣀॠيڮݜںঝۍॠٕڷǣߣş قχՙ͟ۆԵڮÀԦԓʼČŔۋ঳قəԦԓۋʼݓ

؍؉ÒьۋҝÀɠॢìڷͿ؎Ͳ܋ٵɰ. ̚ॢėŕέ

фڮߕ࣊ęʪʪԐؒ۹ΪࠗقҼ३ǰ؉şܕսݔ܁

قԴəą܃Ձঝ҃ÀҝÀɠॠٕɰ. 1990țʂق˞ر ٮHalliburton, Weatherford, Baker Hughs, Schulumberger ˣۆধԐÀսथ֨߸εսॱॠيۋŘप˚ՕێقԴʪԵ ڮεԦԓॣսەڼںঝۍॠٕɰ. ۋ঳2008țPetrohawk ԐÀLa Salle CountyۆHawkville FieldقԴսथڷͿ

3,200 ftε֨߸ॠČ10ɳć(stage)ۆսؓࣷթεॠي, 7.6 MMCFDۆÀ֟εԦԓॠٕɰ(Railroad Commission of Texas, 2013). ۋ঳2010țҙࢢ҆üۺۍÒьۋ֨

ۚʼر Anadarko, Apache, Atlas, EGO, Lewis Petro., Geosouthern, Pioneer, SM Energy, XTOԐˣսψڹ

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Fig. 10. Annual trend of drilling permits in the Eagle Ford Shale (Railroad Commission of Texas, 2013).

Fig. 11. An annual increase rate in daily hydrocarbon production of the Eagle Ford Shale (Railroad Commission of Texas, 2013).

ধԐ˞ۋ޷يॠóʼؽɰ. ইۦأ30ÒধԐÀÒьں

ݕॱܼۋ϶, ॢĶԵڮėԐəAnadarkoԐٮ2009țÒь ق޷يॠٕɰ. 2008țقə 26ėۋ ֨߸ʼؽڷǣ, 2009 țقə94ė, 2010țقə֨߸Àʌڎটь০սॱʼر

1,010ė, 2011țقə 2,826ėۋ֨߸ʼؽČ, 2012țق əأ4,000ėۋ֨߸ʼؽɰ. 2013ț4ښইۦأ2,800 يÒۆ ߸À ֨߸ÀۋΘرݗ ٚ܁ۋɰ(Fig. 10).

ۋŘप˚ՕێقԴԵڮÀÀۤ۞Ԧԓʼə“Sweet Spot”ڹ֥ՁÀ֟ԦՁɳćقەəݓًۋɰ. ۋəݓࠗ

ǴقԴÀ֟Àѓ߻ʼϸԴԵڮεнرǴرԵڮۆԦԓ

͟ۋȭČ, ̚ॢԦԓʼəԵڮəߣąݗڮͿԴÀüۋ

ȭ؉ą܃Ձۋϔڍȭş˺Лۋɰ. Ŕ͠ǣইۦÀ֟À üۋǰČÀ֟ࣷۋ॒͆ۍۆҙܔڷͿÀ֟ۆԦԓۋ١ ০Ͳą܃Ձঝ҃قҙ܁ۺۍٖॳںܳČەɰ. ˰͆Դ

ԵڮۆԦԓ͟ڹۺڷǣÀ֟ۆԦԓ͟ʪۺڹҚޅۆ

ԵڮԦՁɳćقەəݓًۋ١০Ͳą܃Ձۋەəݓ

ًڷͿ ÁġںыČ ەɰ.

ۋŘप˚ ՕێقԴ 1ėɾ Ԧԓ͟ڹ ߣş 1ÒښÂ

200-700 BOEPD(Barrels Oil Equivalent Per Day) ۋ϶,

߯ʂ3,000 BOEPDقɵॣ܁ʪͿԦԓՁۋϔڍȭɰ.

ŔܼԵڮԦԓ͟ڹߣş1ÒښÂ200-600 B/D ܁ʪͿ

ԵڮۆԦԓ͟ۋψ؉À֟Àüۋই۹০ǰڹ2012ț قʪϔڍȭڹą܃Ձں҃يܵɰ. ԵڮԦԓۋ֨ۚʽ

2009ț ߣşχ ॠʌ͆ʪ ۋ ݓًۆ ġńÀü(lease price)ڹ500 US$/acreͿϔڍǰؕڷǣ, ۋ঳Àüۋś Ԝ֧ॠي2012țϊقə߯۹Àüۋ7,000 US$/acreۋ Č ߯ʂÀüڹ 25,000 US$/acre, थŒÀüڹ 14,000 US$/acreقɵॢɰ. ֨߸Ҽə1ėɾأ550χɵ͠܁ʪ ۋ϶, ইۦşցͿ2-3ܳق1ėۆ֨߸, սؓࣷթфٰ

Āۚغ(completion)ۋٰΒʾ܁ʪͿϔڍӇδ՚ʪͿ

֨߸ÀۋΘرݓČەɰ. ԜʂۺڷͿԵڮÀψۋԦԓ ʼəěćͿġńÀüں܃ٽॠٕںąڍڮÀ50ɵ͠

قԴʪ ą܃Ձۋ ەɰ.

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Fig. 12. Normalized Production decline profile for the Eagle Ford Shale groups (modified from Martin et al., 2011). Note a rapid decrease in production rate within 4 months after initial production (calculated based on 6MCF=1BOE, BOEPD=Barrels oil equivalent per day).

ϔۤ͟

2010țEIA(U.S. Energy Information Administration) ÀԵڮÀԦԓʼəۋŘप˚Օێۆқपѩڦεأ140 χacre, À֟ÀԦԓʼəқपѩڦεأ12χacreͿथ Àॢ঳, ėɾŀŕϔۤ͟(EUR)(330 MBO(Thousand Barrels of Oil), 5.5 BCF), ėɾäν(well/128acre(oil), well/160 acre(gas)) фՕێۆԵڮݓݗॡۺ࣢ݜںц࢖ڷͿϔ

ۤ͟ںथÀॠٕɰ. ۋق˰βϸۋŘप˚Օێق3.35 BBO(Billion Barrels Oil)ۆԵڮٮ, 20.81 TCFۆÀ֟

Àьþ۠ۦۙڙ͟ڷͿܕۦॣìڷͿथÀॠٕɰ(EIA, 2013). ॠݓχ, ߯ŖԦԓşցۆьɵͿۍॠيėɾŀ ŕϔۤ͟ڹ ߯ʂ 1,100 MBOE(Thousand Barrels Oil Equivalent)ۋ϶, ॳ঳ԜʂۺڷͿŪڹĖقܕۦॠə

ՕێںÒьॣąڍ, ۙڙ͟ڹʌڎݒÀॣìڷͿٚԜ ʽɰ. ۋٮʌҝر2012țۋŘप˚ՕێقʂॢߪԵڮ

֟֨ࢰ(Total Petroleum System) şъۆथÀĀęق˰

βϸ, أ 853 MMB(Million Barrels)ۆ Եڮ ф 2,043 MMBۆ ࠸ʜՃۋ࣡, 51,926 BCF(Billion Cubic Feet) ۆÀ֟Àйьþڙ֨ҙܕ͟ڷͿܕۦॣìڷͿٚԜॠ

ٕɰ(Dubiel et al., 2012).

2008țۋ঳śüॢÒьͿۍ३, ԵڮԦԓ͟ڹ2010 ț, 15,163 B/D, 2011ț, 128,619 B/D, 2012ț381,317 B/DͿݒÀॠٕڷ϶, ࠸ʜՃۋ࣡ٮÀً֟֨ʴێş

Â ʴ؋ 18,684 B/D 77,350 B/D, 116,491 B/D, 322 MMCFD, 1,206 MMCFD, 2,039 MMCFDͿÁÁݒÀ ॠٕɰ(Fig. 12). 2013ț3ښইۦԵڮԦԓ͟ڹ512,455 B/D, ࠸ʜՃۋ࣡ə96,952 B/D, À֟ə1,945 MMCFD قۋδɰ(Fig. 11). 2015țقəԵڮф࠸ʜՃۋ࣡ə

ێԓ75χѕͣقɵॣìڷͿ߸܁ʼǣইۦԦԓ͟ݒ À՚ʪͿ҃؉ŔۋԜۆԵڮÀԦԓʾÀɠՁʪەɰ.

ۋŘप˚ՕێقԴߣş1ÒښÂԦԓ͟ڹێԓ200- 600 ѕͣͿϔڍȭڷǣ1ț঳قəێԓ80-150 ѕͣ

ͿԦԓ͟ۋśü০Çՙॢɰ(Fig. 12). ێҙԵڮধԐə

7-8ț ܁ʪ Ԧԓۋ ݓ՚ʾ ìڷͿ ٚࠑॠČ ەڷǣ, EOGԐəۙԐۆ֨߸܁قʂॢथÀق˰͆, 20țÂԦ ԓۋÀɠॣìڷͿٚԜॠČەɰ(EOG, 2013). Ŕ͠ǣ

ۋݓًۆսथ֨߸фսؓࣷթͿԦԓॠə֨߸܁قԴ ə߯ʂ3țÂۆÇࣅčԸۙΒшقػرॳ঳Ԧԓ͟

ں ߸܁ॠə ìڹ رͷɰ.

ÒьфԦԓقԴۆЛ܃۾

ۋŘप˚ՕێقԴԵڮфÀ֟Ԧԓ͟ۋśݒॠي

ࢭԐ֟ǫԴҙݓًقԴəԵڮфÀ֟ࣷۋ॒͆ۍۋ

ѿЀইԜں҃ۋČەɰ. ԦԓʽԵڮə࣡͡ڷͿսբ ॠ϶, ۋͿۍॢİࣀߕݒфʪͿী՜ۋ֮Áॠɰ. ۋͿ

ۍ३ۋݓًۆࣷۋ॒͆ۍধԐ˞ڹ2012țϊūݓ10

(11)

زɵ͠(US$)ε࣊ۙॠيێێڏբ͟940,000 ѕͣۆ

ԞͿڏԵڮࣷۋ॒͆ۍںæԺॠČەɰ. ˰͆Դইۦ

Եڮࣷۋ॒͆ۍۆѿЀইԜڹ2013țϊق३ՙʾۻ ϐۋɰ. ێҙࣷۋ॒͆ۍধԐقԴəşܕۆÀ֟ࣷۋ

॒͆ۍںԵڮࣷۋ॒͆ۍڷͿۻঞॠəćনںՃڍČ

ەɰ. ࣢০, ԵڮԦԓ͟ۋÀۤȭڹ֥ՁÀ֟Ձվݓً

قԴəÀ֟ʪψۋԦԓʼǣ, À֟ÀüۋǰČÀ֟ࣷ

ۋ॒͆ۍʪҙܔॠيÀ֟ۆԦԓۋ١০Ͳą܃Ձঝ҃

قҝνॢࠑϸʪەɰ. ۋəҚйݓًقԴÀ֟Àüۆ

ॠ͇ڷͿÀ֟ԦԓধԐӼχ؉ɦ͆ࣷۋ॒͆ۍধԐʪ

޽ԓՁںϑ߸ݓЇॠş˺Лۋɰ. Ŕ͠ǣۋŘप˚Օ ێقԴəԵڮεԦԓॠşڦ३ԴÀ֟εԦԓ३آॠş

˺ЛقAnadarkoԐεҼ΅ॢێҙ࠘н١ێÒьধԐ˞

ڹʫۙۺۍÀ֟ࣷۋ॒͆ۍںæԺںêࢹॠČەɰ.

ێҙধԐəԵڮՁվݓًڷͿÒьݓًںۻঞॠşʪ

ॠəʚ, ۋəԵڮԦԓ͟ڹۺڷǣԵڮٮ॥ƍԦԓʼ ə À֟ۆ تʪ ۺş ˺Лۋɰ.

ۋŘप˚ՕێقԴԵڮÀԦԓʼəݓًڹսؓࣷթ εڦॢНۋҙܔॠɰ. սؓࣷթεڦॢНڹۋŘप˚

ՕێࠗԜڦۆ֪Ԧʂࠗۍࠢνܓ-کࡒ֟ࠗķ(Carrizo- Wilcox Group)ۆʂսࠗقԴԓ߻ʼəݓॠսεۋڌ

ॢɰ. ɰ͟ۆНۋԐڌʼəěćͿࢭԐ֟ǫԴҙݓً

قԴəۋŊܼॢݓॠսÀČÄʼČەɰ. ˰͆Դێҙ ধԐə ३؋Ը ۍŖݓًق қपॠə ъّս(barckish water)εߌνॠي֨߸قԐڌॠşʪॢɰ.

ۋٮʌҝرԵڮÒьۋݒÀ॥ق˰͆֨߸ইۤقԴ əۍҙվՙÀϿۙ͆ۍŖ঒ࢯڹ1țۋԜϿ˃ٚأ ۋʽԜࢗۋ϶, ۍŖآٖۤʪϿ˃ࢮ࣡Ϳ˞ر޲ە ɰ. ̚ॢśüॢۍĵݒÀͿۍ३Ԧज़ुۋҙܔॠČ, Н Àً֨śˣॠČەɰ. ˰͆ԴۋݓًقԴࢹݓεՙڮ ॠČەəȬۤܳфЀ߹غۙε܃ٽॢʂɰսۆܳл ڹą܃ۺ, ԐধۺڷͿψڹرͲړںýČەر, Եڮ

ÒьقъʂॠČەɰ. ˰͆Դ߯Ŗ࠘н١ێÒьقە رÀۤࢀЛ܃۾ڹşցۋǣۙ҆ۋ؉ɨܳлںԺ˛

ॠČঊܓεصرǴəìۋԐغՁःقەرܼڅॠɰ.

̚ॢ֨߸фսؓࣷթ֨Ԑڌʼəࡀۋֱࣷۋ॒ф

Œَݓݓ܃(proppant)ۆėśۋҙܔॠيێҙÒьধԐ əرͲړںýČەڷ϶, ێҙݓًقԴəʫՁডজս ՙÀ֟(H2S)ÀьԦॠيЛ܃εێڷࢅşʪॢɰ.

Ā΁

ۋŘप˚Օێڹ঳şі؊şقٽ३ٮۆٍĀۋ܃ॢ

ʽϮ֨ࡑχۆʂΫңقԴࣅۺʽԵধݗۋধؒڷͿ

ĵՁʼرەɰ. ۾ࢹġНۆ॥͟ۋۺČ, Եধݗф֬ν

ࠢġНۆ॥͟ۋȭ؉սؓࣷթقڮνॠɰ. ۋŘप˚

ՕێۆڮşН॥͟ڹ2-8.5%Ϳϔڍȭڷ϶, ϔЃ֮ʪ ق˰͆ԵڮԦՁɳć, ֥ՁÀ֟ԦՁɳćфæՁÀ֟

ԦՁɳćݓًڷͿĵқʽɰ. ԵڮÀÀۤψۋԦԓʼ ə֥ՁÀ֟ԦՁɳćق३ɾʼəݓًقԴə1ėɾێ ێԵڮঞԓԦԓ͟ۋ200-700 ѕͣقۋδɰ. ۋܼ

ԵڮۆԦԓ͟ۋ200-600 ѕͣقɵॢɰ. ۋŘप˚Օێ قʂॢEIAۆथÀق˰βϸ, 30زѕͣۆԵڮф20 TCFۆ À֟À ьþ۠ۦۙڙ͟ڷͿ ܕۦॢɰ. 2008ț

PetrohawkԐÀսथ֨߸фսؓࣷթεࣀ३ÒьقՁ ėॢۋ঳҆üۺۍÒьۋ֨ۚʼر2012țϊ, Եڮۆ

ąڍێێԦԓ͟ۋ38χѕͣقɵॠ϶, ॳ঳2015țق əێԓ75χѕͣۆԵڮф࠸ʜՃۋ࣡ÀԦԓʾìڷ Ϳ ٚԜʽɰ.

śüॢÒьͿۍ३ԵڮфÀ֟ࣷۋ॒͆ۍۋҙܔ ॠ϶, սؓࣷթεڦॢНʪҙܔॢ֬܁ۋɰ. ġńÀü ۆśݒ, НÀԜ֧, ܳлъьˣɰتॢرͲړۋەڷ ǣ, цࡂՕێ, й֨֨क़؋͆ے֟ࢻфцȖՕێࡕ҃

॔ͪۋ(Ko, 2007) ˣę॥ƍۋŘप˚ՕێقԴۆ࠘н ١ێԦԓڹśݒॠيॳ঳Ķ܃ڮÀۆ؋܁জقࡾó

şيॣ ս ەں ìڷͿ ٚԜʽɰ.

ԐԐ

ٍ҆ĵəॢĶݓݗۙڙٍĵڙۆԐغۍ‘ĶǴٽԵڮ ࣅۺқݓ қԵ ф ܁҃জ(ę܃ѥ঒13-1133)’ۆ ێҙͿ

սॱʼؽɰ. Ճ֮ॢ ܓسں ३֪ܳ یϼۆ ֮Ԑۙ˞ƍ

ÇԐ˚ν϶, Ŕρۚغںʪٮܵęॡşցٍ०ʂॡڙʂ ॡİ ۋࢗ঵ ॡԦقóʪ ÇԐ˚οɰ.

3FGFSFODFT

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