Determinants of Well-Being in Later Life: Focusing on Their Volunteering Experiences

Corresponding author: Hongjik Lee, Kangnam University, Gugal-dong, Giheung-gu, Yongin 446-702, Korea

Tel: +82-31-280-3487, E-mail: [email protected] Received November 15, 2011, Revised December 3, 2011

Accepted December 17, 2011

This research was based on the doctorate dissertation of Jihyun Park.

Determinants of Well-Being in Later Life: Focusing on Their Volunteering Experiences

*State University of New York, Albany, USA,

Kangnam University, Yongin, Korea

Jihyun Park*, Hongjik Lee

This study aimed to explore the factors that affect on their positive psychological well-being among older adults. Especially, it tried to examine how their volunteering work experiences affect their level of psychological well-being. The data of the Volunteerism among Older Adults between U.S. and South Korea by the Center for Excellence in Aging Services and Community Wellness (CEASCW) in 2010 were used for this purpose. 274 older volunteers in South Korea were adopted as the data of this study. This study conducted the descriptive analyses, correlation analysis and multiple regression analyses to explore the determinants of their psychological well-being. In the regression model, by adding socioeconomic characteristics, two antecedent factors-work assignment and personal efficacy were statistically significant. This result suggests that older volunteers with higher level of work assignment achieved and satisfaction with personal efficacy are more likely to present the higher status of well-being in later life. Therefore, volunteer agency should be took for older volunteers to consider the determinants of satisfaction in order to increase the retention rate of volunteering and improve psychological well-being in later life. (Korean J Str Res 2011;19:333∼

342)

Key Words: Psychological well-being, Volunteering, Satisfaction, Older adults

INTRODUCTION

Volunteering among older adults is seen as a strategy to increase the life satisfaction, enhance role identity in the stage of retirement and improve the positive psychological well-being in their later life. The positive contributions of volunteering that plays central role substitution in their retired life influence on happiness and achieve some sense of psychological well-being

(Morrow-Howell et al., 2003; Mellor et al., 2009). Changing job status and involvement in the recruitment transition activities such as part-time work or volunteering among older adults can lead to involvement in the volunteer force, essentially replacing the central role that employment played in older adults’mid lives.

Ruhm(1990) posits that the transition of boomers from work to

retirement tends to involve substantial “bridge role-substituted

activities” that generally include part-time employment or volun-

teering. In particular, older adults who are in the transitional

phase of retirement tend not to seek full retirement status,

instead utilizing the time prior to retirement to work toward

having a meaningful later life.

1. Volunteering and Well-being

Older adults, especially retired Baby Boomers, look forward to becoming involved in volunteering, seeing it as being productively rewarding as they provide a valuable service to the community and helping them achieve some sense of psychological well-being (Mellor et al., 2009). Previous research on volunteering has attem- pted to investigate the benefits and impacts of volunteering, specifically aimed at exploring the possible consequences of volunteering on an individual’s physical and/or psychological well-being. Volunteering has been show to be positively correlated to physical function and longevity (Morrow-Howell et al., 2003), increased life satisfaction (Van Willigen, 2000), fewer depressive symptoms and negative mental health (Musick et al., 2003), and lower rates of mortality (Musick et al., 1999). As reflected in this line of research, volunteerism and psychological well-being appear to be protective factors that facilitate higher functional levels among older adults (Greenfield et al., 2004).

2. Satisfaction

Satisfaction can be defined as emotional experiences volunteers are likely to have during such encounters because they can determine the degree of satisfaction to volunteer activity and service organizations (Stevens, 1991; Clary et al., 1998; Davis et al., 1999; Davis et al., 2003). This emotional experience toward volunteering would have significant impact on their general well-being which in turn is a predictor of life satisfaction and happiness as measured as positive and negative physical and/or psychological outcomes when taking a holistic approach (Wright 1990; Thoits, 1992; Moen et al., 1992; Adelmann, 1994; Musick et al., 1999; Thoits et al., 2001; Kim J et al., 2002; Windsor et al., 2008). When considering role identification, volunteer satisfaction can be presented as the “older volunteer’s degree of satisfaction with the following qualities in the volunteer role:

sense of belonging training, sense of self-worth, appreciation, responsibility, contact with people, and recognition in the volunteer role (Stevens, 1991)”. It is also logical that the level of satisfaction in the volunteer role is associated with the older volunteer’s self-image within social context in which volunteering occurs, and whether the volunteer role has been internalized and incorporated into one’s self-concept (Callero et al., 1987; Grube

et al., 2000; Piliavin et al., 2002). However, no studies wer found offering direct evidence that suggests the antecedent factors of satisfaction in volunteering among older adults is positively related to psychological well-being in older volunteer’s later life.

This study seeks to explore the relationship between pschological well-being in later life and antecedent factors of satisfaction in volunteering included work assignment, personal efficacy, organizational support, group integration and volunteer role satisfaction.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

1. Design

This study was designed to explore possible determinants of older volunteer’s satisfaction on well-being status in their later life. This study sought to find out the factors of older volunteer’s satisfaction to have an effect on well-being status through volun- teer activity in the transitional retirement phase. This factors of volunteer satisfaction such as work assignment, personal efficacy, organizational support, group integration and volunteer role sati- sfaction would result in the high level of well-being status in older volunteer’s later life.

2. Hypotheses

The following testable hypothesis is presented; older volunteers who achieve higher level of work assignment, personal efficacy and role satisfaction and more full support from volunteer organi- zation will exhibit higher level of well-being status in their later life than their counterparts.

3. Data

Data for this study comes primarily from the Volunteerism

among Older Adults between U.S.A and South Korea by the

Center for Excellence in Aging Services and Community Wellness

(CEASCW) in 2010. For the subsample of older volunteers in

South Korea, data from these who were born from 1946 to 1964

in 2010 was extracted. Total sample size of Baby Boomer volun-

teers in South Korea was 274 respondents. Respondents were 45

years and older, male and female, current active volunteers in

service organization, fully or partially retired, and engaged in

volunteer activities more than six months.

Table 1. Description of variables.

Measure Factor Variable Classification

Dependent measure Well-being (α=.710) General affects Mean of self-reported scores Happiness

Dependent measure Satisfaction (α=.881) Work assignment Personal efficacy Organization support Group integration Volunteer role

Gender 0=Female

1=Male

Age Years respondents are born

Marital status 0=Married

1=Single/widowed/seperated/divorced Dependent measure Socioeconomic characteristics Retirement status 0=Yes

1=NoEducation

Education 1=Elementary

. 2=Middle school

3=High school 4=College 5=University 6=Graduate school 4. Survey

The survey was paper-based and self-administered survey using a 5 point Likert scale that was anonymous and was conducted with participants after consent was given. Data collection was completed by the trained research team members. The data collectors informed that participants might decide to leave the study at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which you might otherwise had been entitled. The survey consisted of 20 minutes questionnaires asking about 1) personal background information about age, educational background, marital status, retirement status, income and family background; 2) volunteer experience about number of volunteering hours, number of orien- tation/ training, frequency of contact with staff, and field of volunteering; 3) 4) The Volunteer Satisfaction Index (VII) to measure volunteer satisfaction including work assignment, personal efficacy, organizational support, group integration and volunteer role satisfaction (30 items) (Table 1).

The questionnaires was translated English into Korean based on finding similar validated instruments in Korean. To test ter- minology, applicability and comprehension of quantitative ques- tionnaires in order to develop a valid survey instrument for Korean older volunteers; 1) 10 MSW level students from depart-

ment of Social Work, Kangnam University, and 2) 15 older volunteers aged 55 and older from Seoul Volunteer Center. Given high internal consistency among items in each 6 standardized scale, this study summed them to a total score for the regression analyses (ranging from .645 to .945). The alpha reliabilities of all six standardized scale for 274 older Korean volunteers were acceptable.

5. Measurement

1) Dependent variable: There was one dependent varia- ble, well-being status in late life (WELL-BEING).

(1) Index of well-being: The Index of Well-being is a

two-part measure of self-reported well-being with life, developed

by Campbell(1976). The 9-item Index of Well-being is composed

of an Index of General Affect (8 items) and Life Satisfaction (1

item). Much research exists that supports the claim that the Index

of Well-being has adequate reliability. The eight items in the

Index of General Affect had internal consistency of .89 in the

sample of 1,977 employees, and correlated .55 with the life

satisfaction item. And, test-retest reliability correlations for 285

respondents about eight months later were .43, especially .56

only for reliability of the Index of General Affect (Near et al.,

1984).

Table 2. Socioeconomic characteristics.

Variable Frequency Percentage (%)

Age (n=267)

45∼54 114 41.6

55∼64 91 36.1

65∼74 41 15

75+ 13 4.7

Gender (n=274)

Female 236 86.1

Male 38 13.9

Marital status (n=273)

Married 228 83.2

Single/widowed/separated/divorced 45 16.5

Education (n=244)

Elementary school 12 4.4

Middle school 18 6.6

High school 72 26.3

2-year college 68 24.8

4-year college 50 18.2

Graduate school 24 8.8

Retirement status (n=200)

Fully retired 123 44.9

Partially retired 77 28.1

Table 3. Volunteer information.

Mean Median SD Range

Length of total volunteering (month) (N=262) 86.82 60 85.408 4∼540

7 yrs 2 mths 5 yrs 7 yrs 1 mth 4 mths∼45 yrs

Hours of volunteering in a month (N=247) 21.86 12 26.485 1∼200

Number receiving an orientation (N=166) 4.62 3 4.545 0∼30

Number receiving training (N=163) 6.19 3 7.847 0∼50

Contact with volunteer coordinator (N=193) Frequency Percentage (%)

Rarely 12 4.4

Occasionally 13 4.7

Periodically 97 35.4

Frequently 51 18.6

Often 20 7.3

(2) Volunteer Satisfaction Index (VSI): The Volunteer Satisfaction Index developed by Payne et al.(1974) is a 30 items survey used to measure the satisfaction of the volunteering experience. The VSI taps into dimensions dealing with work assignment, personal efficacy, organizational support, group integration, and volunteer role satisfaction. The original VSI used a five-point Likert scale of “very satisfied” to “very dissatisfied.”

The Volunteer Satisfaction Index developed by Payne et al.(1974) has been found to predict elderly volunteer’s satisfaction as it

relates to agency support of the volunteer, participation efficacy achieved as a result of volunteering, and recognition in the volunteer role recognition received as a result of the volunteer role among RSVP elderly volunteers in one longitudinal study (Payne et al., 1974). Because elderly volunteers are to be the targeted population and the VSI has been used for the population, the researcher proceeded with the VSI developed by Payne et al.(1974) even though there is a lack of existence of reliability and validity.

6. Data analysis

Statistical analyses were done using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive analyses were conducted to examine demographic characteristics of the sample of older volun- teers. Correlation analysis was constructed among six variables in the regression model. The hypothesized multiple regression model was assessed to explore the determinants of volunteer satisfaction among older volunteers to have an effect on well-being status in their later life.

RESULTS

1. Characteristics of the volunteers and the volunteer experience

A shown in Table 2, Average ages of total respondents is around 57 years old, ranging from 45 to 84 years old, 86.1%

female, 83.5% married, 26.3% holding the high school degree,

45% being fully retired, and 21.86 hours volunteering in a

month averaged. In terms of volunteer experience among respon-

Table 4. Mean distribution among variables.

Well-being M±SD

General affects 3.95±.67

Happiness 3.84±1.00

Volunteering satisfaction factors M±SD

Work assignment 3.62±.68

Personal efficacy 3.24±.70

Organization support 3.26±.69

Group integration 3.31±.70

Volunteer role 3.53±.59

Table 5. Correlation analysis among variables.

Dependent variable volunteer’s well-being

Independent variables

volunteer satisfaction factors

Well-being Work assignment Personal efficacy Organization support Group integration

Work assignment .54

Personal efficacy .41

.69

Organization support .27

.57

.65

Group integration .36

.62

.81

.61

Volunteer role .42

.58

.46

.35

.47

a

p<.01.

dents by an in Table 3, there was large variation in the intensity of volunteering. Older volunteers, on average, contributed seven years two month in their entire life and 21.86 hours per month.

The average number of orientation that respondents participated in current volunteer position was around five. Most volunteer reported that they periodically contact with their volunteer coordinator in current agency. Respondents participated in a wide range of volunteer program. Approximately half of respondents were involved in community services (51.1 percent) and elderly services (48.9 percent) (Table 3).

2. Mean distribution among variables

As presented in Table 4, the mean distribution of well-being ranged from 3.84 to 3.97, using 5 point Likert scale, indicated slightly higher mean values among variables (M=3.56, SD=.52).

In terms of volunteer satisfaction factors, the respondents reported higher mean distribution of satisfaction factors than mean value among variables, such as work assignment and volunteer roles under satisfaction (3.62 and 3.53 relatively). However, the mean value of personal efficacy, organizational support and group in-

tegration were lower than the mean value among variables (3.24, 3.26, and 3.31 relatively).

3. Correlation analysis

Table 5 presented the correlation matrix for five variables in regression model. The variable of well-being was comparatively highly correlated with work assignment (r=.54**). In terms of correlation among independent variables, personal efficacy and group integration (r=.81**) was highly correlated. Two variables are free from the multicollinearity problem if the VIF is less than 10.00 (Kim DS et al., 2000). This study could use both variables of group integration and personal efficacy in the regression models since the VIF for the two variables was 1.00, even though the correlation of two variables was as high as .81.

4. Regression analysis

In this regression analysis, series of multiple regression analyses were conducted to explore the finding the best set of explanatory variables by adding socioeconomic status variables. As presented in Table 6, the value of R in model 1 is .18, means 18 percent of explanation between well-being and volunteer satisfaction factors in this regression model. In model 2, the R

value increased 21 percent by adding socioeconomic status variables that found more powerful model in this regression procedure.

Model1:

WELLBEING=.93

(.36*)(WORKASSIGNMENT)

(.44*)(PER-

SONALEFFICACY)

(.04)(ORGANIZATIONSUPPORT)

_(.32)

(GROUPINTEGRATION)

(.29)(ROLESATISFACTION)

_e

Table 6. Regression models.

Predictors Model 1 Model 2

B (SE) Beta B (SE) Beta

Volunteer satisfaction factors

Work assignment .36

.17 .22 .34

.18 .21

Personal efficacy .44

.19 .28 .47

.19 .29

Organization support .04 .15 .03 .61 .16 .03

Group integration .32

.18 .22 .33

.18 .22

Volunteer role satisfaction .29

.17 .15 .31

.17 .16

Socioeconomic status

Gender (female) .28 .23 .10

Age .005 .01 .04

Marital status (married) .23 .14 .13

Education .07 .07 .10

Retirement status (retired) .12 .18 .06

Constant .93 .09

F 6.19

3.70

R-square .18 .21

a

p<.1,

p<.05,

p<.01,

p<.001, Reference variables: Gender (female), Marital status (married), Retirement status (retired) .

Model2:

WELLBEING=.09

(.34)(WORKASSIGNMENT)

(.47)(PERSON- ALEFFICACY)

(.61)(ORGANIZATIONSUPPORT)

(.33)(GROU- PINTEGRATION)

(.31)(ROLESATISFACTION)

_(.28)(GEN- DER)

(.005)(AGE)

(.23)(MARITALSTATUS)

(.07)(EDUCA- TION)

(.12)(RETIREMENTSTATUS)

_e

As show in Table 6, each of predictors-work assignment (b=.36*) and personal efficacy (b=.36*) were statistically significant in model 1. The effect of a change of one standardized unit of level of work assignment and level of personal efficacy would expect to increase the level of well-being status in later life by .36. and .44 relatively. These results suggest that older volunteers with higher level of work assignment satisfaction and personal efficacy satisfaction are more likely to achieve the higher well-being status in volunteer's later life.

In model 2 by adding socioeconomic characteristics, two predictors-work assignment (b=.34*) and personal efficacy (b=.47**) were still statistically significant. It is interesting to note that the coefficient of personal efficacy slightly increased from .44 with .05 p-level to .47** with .01 p-level. This result suggests that older volunteers with higher level of work assign- ment achieved and satisfaction with personal efficacy are more likely to present the higher status of well-being in later life. Also,

adding socioeconomic status variables could lead to find the better set of the explanatory predictors of volunteer’s satisfaction in model 2.

DISCUSSION

This study sought to determine the factors of older volunteer’s satisfaction to have an effect on well-being status through volunteer activity in the transitional retirement phase. This factors of volunteer satisfaction such as work assignment, personal efficacy, group integration and volunteer role satisfaction resulted in the high level of well-being status in older volunteer’s later life.

In this study, well-being was utilized as a predictor of life satisfaction and happiness associated with positive and negative physical and psychological outcomes in a holistic approach (Wri- ght, 1990; Thoits, 1992; Mohen et al., 1992; Adelmann, 1994;

Musick et al., 1999; Thoits et al., 2001; Kim J et al., 2002; Win-

dsor et al., 2008;). Significant positive correlations were found be-

tween a dependent variable and five factors of volunteer’s

satisfaction: i.e., between WELL-BEING and WORK ASSIGN-

MENT (r=.54**), WELLBEING and PERSONAL EFFICACY

(r=.41**) (Table 4). The study indicates that volunteer’s well-

being/happiness in late life-as a dependent variable in the hypot-

hesized regression model-is more likely to be related to volunteer engagement and satisfaction in the individual level. This suggests that volunteer activity is a likely contribution to greater psy- chological well-being in the subjective way of retirement phase. In model testing, the direct effect of well-being on satisfaction factors-volunteer’s individual work assignment (β=.36*) and personal efficacy (β=.44*) were found to be significant, indi- cating a greater level of volunteer’s positive well-being status in later life when volunteer’s achievement of volunteer work and personal satisfaction in the individual level. In addition, by adding socioeconomic characteristics in model 2, this result suggests that older volunteers with higher level of work assignment achieved and satisfaction with personal efficacy are more likely to present the higher status of well-being in later life regarding individual considering demographic characteristics.

The current results which evidence the positive impact of volunteer’s satisfaction on volunteer’s well-being in later life extends previous findings of studies related to the benefits and impacts of volunteering (Mellor et al., 2009). Even though no previous studies were found offering direct evidence that suggests a relationship between satisfaction and psychological well-being in later life, the findings in current study are supported by Windsor and his colleagues studies (2008), which demonstrated “positive affects” -defined in terms of satisfaction toward volunteer activity-tend to elicit higher well-being scores considering the gender differences, socio-economic status, and level of income and education (Windsor et al., 2008). One noticeable difference in current study from previous findings, however, is the finding that the relationship between volunteer antecedent factors and positive feelings of well-being was found to be significant for only the older adult cohorts.

The work assigned to a volunteering is related to volunteer job satisfaction. Specifically in the volunteer’s individual level, job description-fit for volunteering has been associated with satis- faction which gives the volunteer individual the opportunity to develop their skills and feelings of achievement as a challenge based on the special needs and talents of older volunteers. Thus, above all, consideration needs to be given to understanding the transitional phase of retirement and to creating volunteer opportunities that match not only the level of willingness to volunteer but the skills sets brought to the volunteer experience

by the volunteer candidate. Further examination of the retirement transition period could help in clarifying the connection between employment and volunteering and help in encouraging older adults to be more innovative and engaged in volunteer activity - made more meaningful through utilizing existing job skills that they acquired while in the work force. We should be aware that older adults can benefit from volunteering because it tends to improve one’s self-identity, self-esteem and happiness in reti- rement.

Participation efficacy, one of the antecedent satisfaction factors connected to well-being was strongly supported as an important aspect of volunteer job satisfaction in the previous research (Omoto et al., 1995; Morrow-Howell et al., 2003). It was related directly to the expressive orientation of volunteerism, for example, volunteers would expect to benefit the recipients through direct volunteering services. One of the previous study (Morrow-Howell et al., 2003) found the most preoccupied reason of termination of volunteering indicated the feelings of frustration that volunteer was unable to help recipients in the effective ways. Secondly, the logical step for volunteer individuals is to improve congruence between volunteer’s expectations and experiences along with satisfaction and retention on volunteer activity by becoming more understanding of their need to utilize volunteer’s skills and to insist on a volunteer experience that allows them to maintain them. Acceptance of the importance of admitting challenges in volunteer sector can help provide less frustration from the volunteering experience-one that brings the volunteer’s ex- pectations of the volunteer experience more in line with the realities of their actual volunteer experience.

In the agency level, first of all, the induction of older adults

into an organization to serve as a volunteer workforce is a good

practice that enhances not only the organization but the in-

dividual volunteer’s productive well-being in their later life. In

essence, as social workers, we should not only be considering how

to improve volunteers as an invaluable source of labor to the

organization, but we should be simultaneously considering how to

make the volunteer experience more invaluable to the individual

older adult-considering greater intention to continue volunteer

activities, as well as associated with more favorable antecedent

satisfaction factors that older volunteer are more likely to

highlight, such as role achievement in the individual level or

group integration and organizational support in agency level.

Second, well-description of volunteering job skills in a pre-scree- ning interview should elicit the older talented volunteers’ expec- tations and goals for volunteering. The interview with volunteer coordinator from volunteer service agency should explore the volunteer’s areas of knowledge and vast skill from history of employment and life experience. Information about the clear volunteer job description, nature of volunteer opportunities, and benefits of volunteering are provided and discussed, which can result in tapping into the volunteer’s skills and result in a meaningful volunteer activity. These kinds of agency efforts can lead to increase the level of volunteer satisfaction and increase volunteer retention rate. Organizations should also facilitate close interaction among volunteers so that they can make friends and integrate into the volunteer group.

This study suggest efforts should be directed to enhance various antecedent factors of volunteer satisfaction. Organizations can arrange sharing seminars to provide opportunities to validate their experience and fears of volunteering as well as to develop more adaptive strategies to connect with positive psychological well-being in their later life. The results of the study give a critical glimpse into the perspectives of the older volunteerism in general volunteer study as well as in South Korea, and the potential factors influencing volunteer’s well-being in their later life. This study can lay the groundwork for the development of antecedent factors of volunteer satisfaction model that identifies potential strategies for decreasing volunteer turnover and in- creasing retention rate.

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= 국문초록 =

본 연구는 중ㆍ장년의 삶의 만족도에 영향을 미치는 요인을 이들이 참여하는 자원봉사활동을 중심으로 탐색하였다.

본 연구는 수도권에 거주하는 만 45세 이상 자원봉사활동 참여자 274명을 대상으로 하였다. 분석결과, 자원봉사에서 할당된 활동, 개인적 효율성, 자원봉사 센터의 지지, 집단간 조화, 역할만족도는 삶의 만족도와 통계적으로 유의한 상관관계를 나타났으며, 회귀모형에서는 자원봉사에서 할당된 활동, 개인적 효율성이 통계학적으로 유의하게 이들 의 삶의 만족도 수준을 결정짓는 요인으로 나타났다. 또한, 인구사회학적 특성을 동시에 고려한 통합회귀모형에서도 역시 자원봉사에서 할당된 활동과 개인적 효율성은 여전히 통계학적으로 유의하게 삶의 만족도에 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구는 이러한 연구결과를 토대로 중ㆍ장년층의 삶의 만족도를 증진시키기 위한 자원봉사운영 에의 함의를 전달하였다.

중심단어: 심리적 삶의 안녕, 자원봉사 활동, 만족감, 중장년층

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