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Secondary Growth---Stems

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(1)

Secondary Growth---Stems

(2)

The plants

The plants body consists of two basic parts ---- the shoot system and the root system.

Shoot system is above ground and includes organs such as leaves, bubs, stem, flowers, and fruits.

The functions of the shoot system include photosynthesis, reproduc tion, storage, transport, and hormone production.

The root system is below ground and includes roots as well as modi fied stem structures such as tubers and rhizomes.

The functions of the root system include anchorage, absorption, sto rage, transport, and production of certain hormones.

(3)

Stems are the part of that bear leaves a nd flowers, and they are the continuati on of vascular system pipeline that star ts in the roots.

Stems

Apical bud

Node Internode

Apical bud

Shoot system Vegetative

shoot

Axillary bud Stem

Function of stems:

Stems support leaves, branches and flowers

Transport water, minerals, sugars a nd solutes between roots and leaves.

In some plants, stems have speciali zed functions: food storage, manuf acture food (green stems), horticult

ural. Root

system

(4)

Stems – Structure and Development

Stems have all three types of plant tissu e

Grow by division at meristems

– Develop into leaves, other shoots, and even flowers

Leaves may be arranged in one of three ways

Apical meristem – Tissues at the tip of a stem capable of cell division, gives rise

to stem elongation.

(5)

Stems - Comparisons

Epidermis – Outer layer of wax-coated cells that provides protection and covering Cortex – Primary tissues of a stem externally bound by the epidermis and

internally by the phloem.

Xylem tissues – Distribute water and minerals from the roots up through the plant. Xylem provides the structural support in plants,

becoming the “woody ” tissue.

Phloem tissues (inner bark) – distribute sugars (products of photosynthesis) throughout the plant.

Pith – Center of dicot plant stems. In some plants the pith breaks down forming a hollow stem. In older woody plants, the pith is filled with rigid xylem

wood fiber.

Vascular bundle

(6)

Primary and Secondary Growth

Primary growth: results from cell division at the apical meristem at the plant tip.

Secondary growth: results from cell division at t

he lateral meristem, increasing the shoot’s girth.

(7)

Secondary Growth

Secondary Growth- an increase in thickness (girth) to the plan t body as a result of the activity of 2 lateral meristems:

– Vascular Cambium – Cork Cambium

Arising from lateral meristems, secondary growth increases th e girth of the plant root or stem, rather than its length. As long as the lateral meristems continue to produce new cells, the ste m will continue to grow in diameter. In woody plants, this pro cess produces wood.

Monocots rarely produce secondary growth and are therefore seldom woody, with Palms and Bamboo being notable exceptions.

(8)
(9)

Vascular Cambium

Vascular cambium: is not initially a solid cylinder of cells, becomes continuous when production of secondary tissues begins. A cylindrical sheath of meristematic cells that pro duces secondary xylem & phloem.

Certain parenchyma cells between vascular bundles – retain ability to divide

– connect to vascular cambium cells in each vascular b undle

– form a complete ring of vascular cambium

(10)

Time

Secondary xylem Secondary phloem

Second division of vascular cambium forms a phloem cell.

Division of vascular cambium forms two cells, one xylem cell and one vascular cambium cell.

Vascular cambium cell when secondary growth begins.

Vascular cambium cell 1X

1X 1X 1X 1X 1X 2X

2X

2X

2X

1P 1P

1P 1P

1P

2P 2P

2P

3X 3X 4X

vascular Cambium: makes wood and vascular tissue

(11)

Cork Cambium

As the secondary phloem grows, it breaks the outer la yer of the stems and root (epidermis), plants with seco ndary growth usually also develop a cork cambium.

The cork cambium gives rise to thickened cork cell

s (contain suberin) to protect from water loss, physica

l damage and harmful substances.

(12)

Dead at maturity Protection

Cork Cambium: makes cork and bark

Located under outer surface; produces periderm

Growth ring

Vascular ray

Secondary xylem

Heartwood Sapwood

Bark

Vascular cambium Secondary phloem Layers of periderm

(13)

Heartwood vs. Sapwood

Heartwood- the part of the wood in a living tree that contains dead cells;

nonconducting wood.

Sapwood- the part of the wood in a living tree that contains living

surrounds heartwood, active in fluid transport cells and reserve materials;

conducting wood.

(14)

Sapwood = Young xylem, water Heartwood = Old xylem, support Seasonal Growth = annual rings Secondary phloem = grows outward

older phloem crushed

A woody stem has three distinct areas: t he pith, the wood, and the bark.

(15)

Annual Rings in Wood

The age of a tree can be determined by looking at the number of rings that it has.

Xylem growth makes the “annual rings” used to tell a tree`s age.

What forms the rings?

– Spring: water most available, water trans port cells are large and have thin walls – Summer: less water available, water trans

port cells have thicker walls and are darke

r

(16)

Introduction

Root function:

Absorption Conduction Storage Anchorage

- Specialized functions: Starch storage, Water storage, Aerobic respi ration (pneumatophores), Ariel roots (parasitic plants)

Types:

Taproot (Eudicots) Fibrous (Monocots)

Adventitious (Monocots)

Primary growth- Elongation

Secondary growth- Girth extension

(17)

Primary growth

3 main zones of growth:

1) Zone for active cell division

Apical meristem- Develops into 3 primary meristems Protoderm (Epidermis tissue)

Procambuim (Vascular (Xylem and phloem) tissue) Ground meristem (Ground tissue)

2) Zone for cell elongation

- Large water filled vacuoles and assist in

lengthening pushing the root cap through the soil

3) Zone for cell maturation

- Cells differentiate into specialized tissues (protoderm, procambium and ground meristem)

Protected by root cap (replaced by apical meristem)

*Mucigel

Lubricates

Assists in nutrient uptake

Attracts beneficial soil microorganisms Protects the roots from drying out

Increasing soil to root contact

(18)

Secondary growth

Thickening of girth and secondary tissues:

Primary tissue specialized => Secondary growth initia tion

Secondary tissue: Lateral meristems

1) Vascular cambium- secondary xylem, secondary phloem

2) Cork cambium- cork (insulating layer of cells ma de of wax)

Branch roots- Formed with the Secondary tissue - develop from the Pericycle (inside of Endoder mis)

push outward destroying the cortex and epiderm al tissue. Monocots and some eudicots

do not experience secondary growth

(19)

Monocot and Eudicot root development

1) Primary growth development Eudicots

Root from radicle => root apical mersitem => main primary root (Taproot) Monocots

Radicle terminates => new roots grow adventitiously from the stem 2) Secondary growth development

Monocots and some eudicots do not experience secondary growth Eudicots

*Cork and Bark produced from secondary growth Monocots

Palms: widening of the girth occurs through the accumulation of dead leaf bas es

Root tissue structure:

- Core of monocot roots composed of parenchyma cells called the pith - Core of eudicots is composed of the xylem.

(20)

2기목부 (secondary xylem)

: 목재 (wood)

(21)

* 2기목부

. 유관속형성층 내부에서 생긴 모든 세포들

. 목재 (wood) : 2기목부로 구성된 목본 줄기를 통칭 . 목본의 경우 90%를 차지하고 다양한 용도로 사용

* 2기목부의 분류

. 목재형성시기 : 춘재, 추재 . 도관의 분포 : 환공재, 산공재 . 목재생산 식물종류 : 연재, 경재 . 목재의 위치/기능 : 변재, 심재

2기목부

(22)

* 춘재와 추재

. 춘재 (spring wood; 早材, early wood)

: 온대지역의 생장능력이 활발한 시기 (휴면후)에 발달하는 생장에 필요한 높은 통도능력이 필요한 큰 직경을 갖는 도관요소로 구성 . 추재 (autumn wood; 晩材, late wood)

: 건조한 여름에 형성되어 빠른 수분수송에 맞는 직경이 작은 도관요소로 구성

. 생장윤 (growth ring)

: 계절의 주기에 따라 활성정도가 춘재와 추재가 구별되는 현상 . 연륜 (annual ring)

: 보통 온대지방에서 1년동안 자란 춘재와 추재부분

2기목부

(23)

그림 14. 1 목본식물 줄기에서 춘재와 추재로 구성된 연륜

A: 나자식물의 목재 B~D: 피자식물의 목재. B: 환공재(環孔材)

C: 환공재. D: 연륜을 구성하는 춘재와 추재에서 직경이 작은 도관들이 전체적으 로 균일하게 퍼져서 분포되어 있다. 이런 목재를 산공재(散孔材).

(24)

Year 1 Early Spring

Year 1 Late Summer

Primary phloem Vascular cambium Primary

xylem

Cortex Epidermis

Secondary xylem (wood)

Secondary phloem

Cork cambium

Cork

Bark Shed epidermis

Year 2 Late Summer

Secondary xylem (2 years’ growth)

Vascular tissue system Dermal tissue system Ground tissue system Key

목본식물의 2기생장

(25)

Sapwood

Heartwood

Rings

Wood rays

Sapwood Heartwood

Vascular cambium Secondary phloem Cork cambium Cork

Bark

목본식물의 2기생장

(26)

213p. 재미있는 읽을거리 14-1 그림

(27)

* 환공재와 산공재

. 환공재 (ring-porous wood)

: 직경이 큰 도관이 춘재에서만 생기는 경우로 생장윤 구별 용이 . 산공재 (diffuse-porous wood)

: 도관의 크기, 유형이 생장윤 전체를 통해 구별이 어려움 춘재와 추재에 비슷한 크기의 도관이 고루 분포

. 수분 이동속도 : 환공재 (0.5-1m/hr), 산공재보다 5-10배 빠름

2기목부

(28)

그림 14. 1 목본식물 줄기에서 춘재와 추재로 구성된 연륜

A: 나자식물의 목재 B~D: 피자식물의 목재. B: 환공재(環孔材)

C: 환공재. D: 연륜을 구성하는 춘재와 추재에서 직경이 작은 도관들이 전체적으 로 균일하게 퍼져서 분포되어 있다. 이런 목재를 산공재(散孔材).

(29)

* 주축유조직의 분포

2기목부내 주축유조직의 분포양상

. 도관분리형 (apotracheal type) : 유조직이 목부와 떨어져 있음 - 산재형 유조직 (diffuse parenchyma)

: 유세포들이 도관(섬유)들 사이에 불규칙하게 흩어져 있음 - 인대형 유조직 (banded)

: 유조직이 도관으로부터 떨어져 띠모양으로 분포 - 계면형 유조직 (boundary)

: 유조직이 생장윤경계부분에 분포 - 시작형 유조직 (initial)

: 유조직이 생장기가 시작되는 춘재 근처에 분포 - 종료형 (terminal)

: 유조직이 생장기가 끝나는 추재근처에 분포

2기목부

(30)

그림 14. 2 횡단된 목재에서 주축 유조직의 분포를 나타낸 모식도

A~B: 도관분리형유조직. A: 인대형유조직. B: 계면형 중 시작형유조직.

.

(31)

* 주축유조직의 분포

. 도관연접형 (paratracheal type) : 유조직이 목부와 붙어 있음 - 포위형 유조직 (vasicentric parenchyma)

: 유조직이 도관을 완전히 둘러 싸고 있음 - 익상형 유조직 (aliform parenchyma)

: 포위형에서 유조직 일부가 도관을 옆에서 날개모양으로 둘러쌈 - 결합형 유조직 (confluent parenchyma)

: 익상형에서 날개부분의 유조직이 불규칙하게 연결됨

2기목부

(32)

그림 14. 2 횡단된 목재에서 주축 유조직의 분포를 나타낸 모식도

C~D: 도관연접형유조직. C: 익상형유조직. D: 결합형유조직.

(33)

*

연재와 경재

. 연재 (softwood) : 나자식물의 목재

: 90%이상이 가도관으로 구성되어 균질하고 부드러움 : 흔히 수지도가 방사유조직에 둘러 싸임

: 쌍자엽식물 목본에 비해 빠른 생장력으로 경제적 . 경재 (hardwood)

: 온대지방에 흔한 쌍자엽식물의 목재

: 주로 도관과 높은 밀도의 섬유로 구성되어 단단함

2기목부

(34)

*

변재와 심재

. 심재 (heart wood)

: 통도기능이 상실된 내부에 위치한 지지기능의 목재 : 건조하고 짙은 색

: 수지, 탄닌 등의 대사산물 (노폐물)이 집적 : 높은 밀도의 강한 내구성

. 변재 (sap wood)

: 통도기능을 수행하는 바깥부분에 위치한 밝은 색의 목재 : 목부수액 (xylem sap)으로 충만

: 유관속형성층에 의해 매년 형성 . 전충체 (tylosis)

: 통도기능이 정지된 도관을 밀폐시키는 구조

: phenol, lignin, aromatic 물질분비로 주변의 유조직이 죽어서 썩지 않는 단단한 심재가 형성됨

2기목부

(35)

그림 14. 3 목본식물 줄기의 심재와 변재

A: 횡단된 줄기의 입체적 모식도. 2기물관부가 심재와 변재로 구성되어 있고, 유관속형성층은 수피(樹 皮) 가까이 밀려나 있다. B: 뽕나무속(Morus) 식물 가지의 줄기 횡단면. 중앙의 많은 연륜으로 구성된 짙은 색깔 부분이 심재이며, 가장자리에 있는 밝은 색깔 부분을 변재이다.

(36)

그림 14. 4 전충체의 구조

A: 도관 옆에 있는 유세포의 원형질이 벽공을 통해서 비어 있는 도관 속으로 들어가서 전충제를 형성 하는 모식도. B: 횡단된 목재에서 전충제가 막 형성되기 시작하는 것을 볼 수 있다. C: 횡단된 도관은 전충제들로 완전히 틀어 막혀 있다. D: 종단면에서 도관은 전충제들로 꽉 차 있는 것을 볼 수 있다.

(37)

2기목부

*

반응재

(reaction wood)

중력의 스트레스에 반응하여 형성하는 목재로 오옥신 분비와 관계 . 장력재 (tension wood)

: 쌍자엽식물에서 줄기위쪽에 형성

: 주로 교질섬유 포함, 목질소 거의 없음 . 압축재 (compression wood)

: 나자식물에서 줄기아래부분에 형성 : 다량의 목질소 포함, 섬유소 거의 없음

(38)

218p. 재미있는 읽을거리14-2 그림

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