Basic Concepts of Plasmas

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Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2020

Basic Concepts of Plasmas

Fall, 2020

Kyoung-Jae Chung

Department of Nuclear Engineering

Seoul National University

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Atom: scientific approach

⚫ Dalton’s atomic theory (John Dalton, 1808)

1. Elements are made of extremely small particles called atoms.

2. Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties; atoms of different elements differ in size, mass, and other properties.

3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.

4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form chemical compounds.

5. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.

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3 Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Fall 2020

The structure of atom

⚫ Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is made of one or more protons and typically a similar number of neutrons. Protons and neutrons are called nucleons.

⚫ More than 99.94% of an atom's mass is in the nucleus.

C

12 6

• Proton (p, H⁺)

- mass (m_p) = 1.67x10^-27 kg

- charge (q_p) = +1.6x10^-19 C (+e)

• Electron (e)

- mass (m_e) = 9.11x10^-31 kg - charge (q_e) = -1.6x10^-19 C (-e)

𝑚_𝑝

𝑚_𝑒 ≈ 1837 𝑞_𝑝

𝑞_𝑒 = 1

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What is a plasma?

⚫ A Plasma is quasi-neutral gas of charged and neutral particles which exhibits collective behavior. (Francis F. Chen)

⚫ Plasma is a gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized. (Wikipedia)

Heat / Energy

0°C 100°C ?°C

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Space plasmas

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The Sun’s energy

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Man-made fusion

노트북 배터리 1개 + 욕조 절반 물 (≥ 달걀컵 1개 분량 중수) = 200 MW

→ 55년 사용량

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ITER project

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Fusion in movies

⚫ Magnetic confinement? Inertial confinement? Or, cold fusion?

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What are energy sources?

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Military plasmas

⚫ Railgun

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Military plasmas

⚫ Plasma shield

Boeing’s patent: protection system from explosive shockwaves

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Military plasmas

⚫ EMP (electromagnetic pulse): nuclear-EMP or non-nuclear EMP

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Lightning

⚫ Lightning is a sudden electrostatic discharge that occurs typically during a

thunderstorm. This discharge occurs between electrically charged regions of a cloud (called intra-cloud lightning or IC), between two clouds (CC lightning), or between a cloud and the ground (CG lightning).

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Plasmas in everyday life

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Plasmas in industry

반도체 식각

DRAM

인조 다이아몬드

플라즈마 용접

폐기물 소각

플라즈마 발파 플라즈마 코팅 플라즈마 로켓

플라즈마 전구 세라믹 가공 플라즈마 디스플레이

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Plasmas in biomedical application

Plasma surgery Plasma therapy

Plasma dentistry

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What is a plasma?

⚫ Plasma is a collection of charged particles (positive ions, negative ions, electrons) and neutral particles (molecules, atoms, radicals).

Heat / Energy

H

₂

O → H

₂

+ O

₂

+ OH

→ H + O

→ H

⁺

+ O

⁺

+ e

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Composition of plasmas: H

₂

O example

⚫ Thermal equilibrium is assumed.

K. J. Chung, Contrib. Plasma Phys. 53, 330 (2013)

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Saha equation: degree of ionization in thermal equilibrium

⚫ The Saha ionization equation is an expression that relates the ionization state of a gas in thermal equilibrium to the temperature and pressure.

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Generation of charged particles: electron impact ionization

Slow electron Fast electron

+ +

Acceleration

Electric field

+

Proton

Electron

Acceleration Electric field

Ionization energy of hydrogen: 13.6 eV (~150,000K)

𝒂 = 𝑞𝑬 𝒎

➢ Electrons are easily accelerated by electric field due to their smaller mass than ions.

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Classification of plasmas

• 플라즈마는 기체와 달리 여러 온도가 존재

• T_e (전자온도) , T_i(이온온도) , T_g(중성입자온도)

• 저온 플라즈마 : Te (~10,000℃) >> T_i ≈ T_{g (~100℃)} → 비평형 플라즈마 (Non-equilibrium plasma)

• 고온(열) 플라즈마 : T_e ≈ T_i ≈ Tg (~10,000℃) → 평형 플라즈마 (Equilibrium plasma)

플라즈마 온도

플라즈마 밀도

• 플라즈마는 여러 밀도가 존재

• n_e(전자밀도) , n_i(이온밀도) , n_g(중성입자밀도)

• 저온 플라즈마 : n_g >> n_i ≈ n_e → 이온화 정도가 작고 대부분 기체상태(중성)로 존재

• 고온(열) 플라즈마 : n_g ≈ n_i ≈ n_e → 이온화 정도가 큼

얼마나 뜨거운가?

• 저온 플라즈마 : 전자의 온도는 높지만 밀도가 낮고 대부분 저온의 중성입자이므로 뜨겁지 않음.

• 고온(열) 플라즈마 : 전자, 이온, 중성입자 모두 온도가 높아 뜨거움.

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Classification of plasmas

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Classification of plasmas

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History of plasmas

Irving Langmuir (1881-1957)

Nobel prize (1932)

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Concept of temperature

⚫ Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution describes particle speeds in gases, where the particles do not constantly interact with each other but move freely between short collisions.

𝑓 𝑣 = 𝑚 2𝜋𝑘𝑇

3/2

4𝜋𝑣² exp −𝑚𝑣² 2𝑘𝑇

⚫ Temperature: average kinetic energy at thermal equilibrium (K)

1 2 𝑚𝑣

²

= 3

2 𝑘𝑇

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Electron-volt unit

⚫ The electron-volt (eV) unit is widely used for presenting the plasma temperature instead of Kelvin.

⚫ Fluorescent lamp: a few eV

➢ Too hot? How can we touch such a hot plasma?

⚫ What is the difference between energy and temperature?

⚫ Unit conversion between K and eV

1 eV = (1.6x10^-19 C) x (1 V) = (1.6x10^-19 J) / (1.38x10^-23 J/K)

= 11,600K

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Boltzmann constant k

⚫ The Boltzmann constant is a bridge between macroscopic and microscopic physics.

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇

𝑅 (gas constant) = 8.31 JK^-1mol^-1

𝑘 (Boltzmann constant) = 1.38x10^-23 JK^-1

𝑆 = 𝑘 ln𝑊

Macroscopic state No. of microscopic states

𝑘 = 𝑅 𝑁

_𝐴

⚫ Entropy

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Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution function

⚫ The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution describes the probability of a particle's speed (the magnitude of its velocity vector) being near a given value as a function of the temperature of the system, the mass of the

particle, and that speed value.

• Most probable speed

• Mean speed

• RMS speed

𝑣_𝑝 = 2𝑘𝑇 𝑚

𝑣 = 8𝑘𝑇 𝜋𝑚

𝑣_𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 3𝑘𝑇 𝑚 𝑓 𝑣 = 𝑚

2𝜋𝑘𝑇

3/2

4𝜋𝑣² exp −𝑚𝑣² 2𝑘𝑇

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Pressure

⚫ Pressure = the force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the surface of an object (energy density).

⚫ Units

➢ mmHg (millimeter of Hg, Torr) 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 Torr

➢ Pa (SI) = N/m²

1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 1,013.25 hPa 1 bar = 10⁵ Pa

➢ 1 Pa = 7.5 mTorr

𝑝 = 𝑛𝑘𝑇

⚫ Loschmidt number: No. of particles at 0°C and 1 atm: 2.7x10²⁵ m^-3

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Vacuum

⚫ A volume of space that is essentially empty of matter, such that its gaseous pressure is much less than atmospheric pressure.

Turbomolecular pump (TMP)

⚫ No. of particles

⚫ Calculate the number of particles at 1 mTorr.

𝑛 = 𝑝/𝑘𝑇

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Neutral mean free path

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Collision

⚫ Collisions conserve momentum and energy: the total momentum and energy of the colliding particles after collision are equal to that before collision.

⚫ Electrons and fully stripped ions possess only kinetic energy. Atoms and partially stripped ions have internal energy level structures and can be excited, de-

excited, or ionized, corresponding to changes in potential energy.

⚫ It is the total energy, which is the sum of the kinetic and potential energy, that is conserved in a collision.

⚫ Elastic: the sum of kinetic energies of the collision partners are conserved.

⚫ Inelastic: the sum of kinetic energies are not conserved. ionization and excitation.

the sum of kinetic energies after collision is less than that before collision.

⚫ Super-elastic: the sum of kinetic energies are increased after collision. de- excitation.

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Elastic collision

⚫ Conservation of momentum and energy

𝑚₁, 𝑣₁ 𝑚₂, 𝑣₂ = 0

𝑚₁, 𝑣₁^′

𝑚₂, 𝑣₂^′ 𝜃₁

𝜃₂

𝜁_𝐿 = 1

2 𝑚²𝑣₂^′2 1

2 𝑚¹𝑣₁²

= 4𝑚₁𝑚₂

𝑚₁ + 𝑚₂ ² cos² 𝜃₂

⚫ Energy transfer rate

𝜁ഥ_𝐿 = 4𝑚₁𝑚₂

𝑚₁ + 𝑚₂ ² cos² 𝜃₂ = 2𝑚₁𝑚₂ 𝑚₁ + 𝑚₂ ²

Average energy transfer rate by many collisions

Energy transfer rate by a single

collision

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Average energy transfer by collisions

⚫ 𝑚₁ = 𝑚₂ (electron-electron, ion-ion, neutral-neutral, ion-neutral) 𝜁ഥ_𝐿 = 2𝑚₁𝑚₂

𝑚₁ + 𝑚₂ ² = 1 2

⚫ 𝑚₁ ≪ 𝑚₂ (electron-ion, electron-neutral) 𝜁ഥ_𝐿 = 2𝑚₁𝑚₂

𝑚₁ + 𝑚₂ ² ≈ 2𝑚₁

𝑚₂ ≈ 10⁻⁵~10⁻⁴

Table tennis ball (2.5 g)

Bowling ball (10 lb.)

Effective energy transfer (quick thermalization)

Hard to be thermalized

⚫ Therefore, in weakly ionized plasma 𝑇_𝑒 ≫ 𝑇_𝑖 ≈ 𝑇_𝑛 : Non-equilibrium

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Inelastic collision

⚫ The sum of kinetic energies are not conserved. Where is the lost energy?

➢ transferred to internal energy

✓ Atomic gases : electronic transition

✓ Molecules : excitation of rotational and vibrational states

𝑚₁, 𝑣₁ 𝑚₂, 𝑣₂ = 0

𝑚₁, 𝑣₁^′

𝑚₂, 𝑣₂^′, ∆𝑈 𝜃₁

𝜃₂

✓ Hint: ∆𝑈

𝑑𝑣₂^′ = 0 𝑎𝑡 ∆𝑈_𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜁_𝐿 = ∆𝑈_𝑚𝑎𝑥

1

2 𝑚¹𝑣₁²

= 𝑚₂

𝑚₁ + 𝑚₂ cos² 𝜃₂

⚫ Energy transfer rate to internal energy ∆𝑈

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Average energy transfer to internal energy by collisions

⚫ 𝑚₁ = 𝑚₂ (electron-electron, ion-ion, neutral-neutral, ion-neutral) 𝜁ഥ_𝐿 = 𝑚₂

2 𝑚₁ + 𝑚₂ = 1 4

⚫ 𝑚₁ ≪ 𝑚₂ (electron-ion, electron-neutral) 𝜁ഥ_𝐿 = 𝑚₂

2 𝑚₁ + 𝑚₂ ≈ 1 2

⚫ 𝑚₁ ≫ 𝑚₂ (ion-electron, neutral-electron) 𝜁ഥ_𝐿 = 𝑚₂

2 𝑚₁ + 𝑚₂ ≈ 𝑚₂

2𝑚₁ ≈ 10⁻⁵~10⁻⁴

➢ Ionization (plasma generation)

➢ Excitation (light emission)

➢ Dissociation (radical production)

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Various inelastic collisions in plasmas

⚫ Photon-induced reactions

➢ photo-excitation : h + N = N^*

➢ photo-ionization : h + N = N⁺ + e

⚫ Electron-induced reactions

➢ electron impact excitation : e + N = N^* + e

➢ electron impact ionization : e + N = N⁺ + 2e

➢ electron impact dissociation : e + N₂ = 2N + e

➢ super-elastic collision : N^** + e = N + e (fast)

➢ radiative recombination : N⁺ + e = h + N

➢ dissociative recombination : e + N₂⁺ = 2N

⚫ Ion-induced reactions

➢ charge exchange : N⁺(1) + N(2) = N(1) + N⁺(2)

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Photon-induced reactions

⚫ Photo-ionization

The physical process in which an incident photon ejects one or more electrons from an atom, ion or molecule. This is essentially the same process that occurs with the photoelectric effect with metals. To provide the ionization, the photo wavelength should be usually less than 1000 Å , which is ultraviolet radiation.

𝜆 < 12,400 𝐼(𝑒𝑉) Å 𝐾. 𝐸. = ℎ𝜈 − 𝐼

ℎ𝜈 + 𝐴 → 𝑒 + 𝐴

⁺

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Electron-induced reactions

⚫ Electron impact ionization

Electrons with sufficient energy (> 10 eV) can remove an electron from an atom and produce one extra electron and an ion.

𝑒 + 𝐴 → 2𝑒 + 𝐴

⁺

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Electron-induced reactions

⚫ Electron impact excitation

Electrons with sufficient energy can also excite the electrons of an atom from the lower energy level to a higher energy level.

𝑒 + 𝐴 → 𝑒 + 𝐴

^∗

⚫ De-excitation

The excited states of atoms are usually unstable and the electron configuration can soon return to its original ground sate, accompanied by the emission of a photon with a specific energy that equals the energy difference between the two quantum levels.

𝐴

^∗

→ 𝐴 + ℎ𝜈

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Electron-induced reactions

⚫ Electron impact dissociation

Most responsible for the production of chemically active radicals in most of the plasmas.

𝑒 + 𝐴

₂

→ 𝑒 + 2𝐴

• e + O₂ → 2O + e (Chemically active O radical generation)

• e + CF₄ → 2e + CF₃⁺ + F (Dissociative ionization)

⚫ Radical generation reactions

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Electron-induced reactions

⚫ Electron attachment

Electron can attach to an electronegative atom to form a negative ion, for example, a halogen atom or an oxygen atom (electron-capture ionization).

𝑒 + 𝐴 → 𝐴

⁻

• e + SF₆ → SF₆^- (Electronegative plasma, electron loss)

• e + SF₆ → SF₅^- + F (Dissociative attachment, negative ion, radical)

⚫ Negative ion generation

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Recombination processes

⚫ Radiative recombination

Positive ions capture a free (energetic) electrons and combine with electrons to form new neutral atoms, radiating a photon.

𝑒 + 𝐴

⁺

→ 𝐴 + ℎ𝜈

⚫ Electron-ion recombination

For electron-ion recombination, a third-body must be involved to conserve the energy and momentum. Abundant neutral species or reactor walls are ideal third-bodies. This recombination process typically results in excited neutrals.

𝑒 + 𝐴

⁺

+ 𝐴 → 𝐴

^∗

+ 𝐴

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Ion-induced reactions

⚫ (resonant) Charge exchange (or charge transfer)

The cross section for resonant charge transfer is large at low collision energies, making this an important process in weakly ionized plasmas.

𝐴

⁺

fast + 𝐴 slow → 𝐴 fast + 𝐴

⁺

(slow)

Ar⁺ + Ar → Ar + Ar⁺

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Collision parameters

⚫ Let 𝑑𝑛 be the number of incident particles per unit volume at 𝑥 that undergo an

“interaction” with the target particles within a differential distance 𝑑𝑥, removing them from the incident beam. Clearly, 𝑑𝑛 is proportional to 𝑛, 𝑛_𝑔, and 𝑑𝑥 for infrequent collisions within 𝑑𝑥.

𝑑𝑛 = −𝜎𝑛𝑛_𝑔𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝚪 = −𝜎𝚪𝑛_𝑔𝑑𝑥

⚫ The collided flux: Γ(x) = Γ₀ 1 − 𝑒^−𝑥/𝜆

⚫ Mean free path: λ = 1 𝑛_𝑔𝜎

⚫ Mean collision time: 𝜏 = 𝜆 𝑣

⚫ Collision frequency: 𝜈 = 𝜏⁻¹ = 𝑛_𝑔𝜎𝑣 = 𝑛_𝑔𝐾

⚫ Rate constant: 𝐾 = 𝜎𝑣

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Reaction rate

⚫ Reaction rate [reactions per volume and second, reactions/m³s]

𝑅_𝑖 = 𝑛_𝑒𝑛_𝑔 < 𝜎_𝑖 𝑣_𝑒 𝑣_𝑒 >_𝑀= 𝑛_𝑒𝑛_𝑔𝐾

❖ Note that 𝑅_𝑖 = 𝑛_𝑔𝜎_𝑖 𝑣 𝑛_𝑒𝑣_𝑒 = Σ_𝑖 ∙ 𝜙 in nuclear reactor physics

⚫ Cross section vs Maxwellian-averaged rate constant

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EEDF (electron energy distribution function)

⚫ It has a nearly Maxwellian energy distribution (not always)

𝑔_𝑒 𝜀 = 2 𝜋

1 𝑘𝑇_𝑒

3/2

𝜀^1/2 exp − 𝜀 𝑘𝑇_𝑒

⚫ For non-Maxwellian electron distribution, the reaction rate is obtained by

𝑅_𝑖 = 𝑛_𝑒𝑛_𝑔 න

0

∞

𝑓_𝑒 𝑣_𝑒 𝜎_𝑖 𝑣_𝑒 𝑣_𝑒4𝜋𝑣_𝑒²𝑑𝑣_𝑒

4𝜋𝑔_𝑒 𝜀 d𝜀 = 4𝜋𝑣²𝑓_𝑒(𝑣)d𝑣 𝜀 = 1

2𝑚𝑣²