Political Opposition

known to be scattered in China, Russia, Vietnam, and Thailand.

North Korea makes an effort to strengthen border defenses to prevent escape from North Korea, but it cannot regulate the borders effectively due to economic difficulties. Although there are some political refugees, the cause of escaping North Korea is mainly the poor economy. According to refugees’testimony, the more deepening of economic difficulties, the more refugees there are from North Korea. The increase of refugees produces a seriously destabilizing influence on the stability of the North Korean system.

Refugees have increased because of deepening economic difficulties and looser regulations of attempts to escape. This stirs the people in North Korea and weakens the will of people to find local solutions to their problem by themselves. Therefore the changes in refugee numbers can be a barometer of the sustainability of the North Korean system. However the number of refugees in South Korea is restricted by the ability of the South Korean government to accommodate them, so it does not equate with the real refugees’ number and the number of refugees coming to South Korea.

Classification of Social

Strata

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Core Class 1.82 2.06 2.29 2.20 2.25 2.27 2.38 2.46 2.54 2.42

Worker

Class 2.05 2.25 2.24 2.25 2.41 2.54 2.70 2.62 2.65 2.65 Unstable

Class 2.19 2.32 2.32 2.27 2.29 2.27 2.29 2.56 2.74 2.72 Hostile Class 2.43 2.37 2.63 3.00 2.92 3.00 3.33 3.14 3.50 3.50 Total 2.09 2.25 2.30 2.32 2.41 2.46 2.59 2.62 2.72 2.68 Place of

Residence 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Pyongyang 2.00 2.00 1.50 1.50 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 Haamkyungdo 2.05 2.23 2.31 2.33 2.40 2.45 2.57 2.57 2.62 2.57 Pyongahndo 2.28 2.38 2.56 2.43 2.43 2.54 2.73 2.80 2.70 2.67 Hwanghaedo 2.86 3.17 3.25 3.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 Yangjakangdo 2.11 2.33 2.33 2.14 2.33 2.33 2.50 2.75 3.33 3.33 Kangwondo 1.78 1.89 2.00 1.50 1.75 1.67 1.00 2.50 2.50 2.50 Total 2.08 2.25 2.33 2.31 2.37 2.42 2.55 2.59 2.65 2.62 Job 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Worker 2.17 2.33 2.40 2.43 2.41 2.51 2.69 2.73 2.78 2.70 Farmer 2.37 2.58 2.50 2.67 2.90 2.88 2.83 2.60 2.60 2.60 Intelligent

People 1.81 1.94 2.13 2.25 2.36 2.36 2.70 2.50 2.88 2.88 Student 1.68 1.86 2.08 1.73 1.92 2.00 1.90 1.81 2.07 2.07 Officer 2.00 2.00 2.17 2.17 2.40 2.25 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 Soldier

(private Rank) 1.50 1.75 1.75 1.75 2.33 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 International

Officer 3.00 2.50 3.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.00 4.00 Total 2.10 2.25 2.34 2.34 2.41 2.48 2.60 2.59 2.68 2.63

People in North Korea are permitted to express their dissatisfaction to just a limited degree with score of 2.62 as seen in <Table Ⅱ-28>. In this case, we have to be careful that people under a socialist system do not receive as much stress as people under a capitalist system due to the characteristics which socialist societies tend to produce. As mentioned before, if they pretend to be following the rules, they do not face big problems in life.

The following is the research analysis on the expression of dissatisfaction in daily life by social and economic background variables.

First, males scored 2.74 and females 2.44, so males express dissatisfaction more. This seems related to the male-oriented culture of North Korea. The deep-rooted patriarchal culture has existed in North Korea until now, so males’ status is much higher than females’ status. Therefore, females should endure more even if they feel discontent. This is related to the way in which females are somewhat disinterested in politics. However the level of expression of discontent is getting higher.

Second, Pyongyang is 4.00 and Yangkangdo and Jakangdo are 3.33 in the research by region, so they showed somewhat higher results. People from Pyongyang have more opportunities to express their discontent as a typical city of North Korea. Additionally, the food supply goes smoothly in Pyongyang, so the discontent of people from Pyongyang may not be that serious.

Third, overseas workers have an outstandingly high average of 4.00. This is because they can discuss freely anything except political issues due to their occupational traits. However other occupational groups cannot express their opinion as easily in reality.

In particular, farmers’ opportunities to express their opinions are decreasing. This can be said to be the case because South Korea has supported the North with fertilizer since 2002, so the farmers’

food supply problem has been improved.

Fourth, the hostile class has an extraordinarily high result of 3.50 compared with other classes. This means that the hostile class has become freer to express their discontent. When the food problem was severe in the early 1990s, the hostile class suffered terrible sacrifices, and such an experience may enable them to express actively their discontent with the food distribution system.

(2) The Possibility of the Existence of Critical Power Table Ⅱ-29. The Existence Possibility of Critical Power

Gender 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Male 2.27 2.28 2.33 2.42 2.51 2.57 2.64 2.62 2.59 2.68 Female 1.85 1.99 2.12 2.30 2.35 2.35 2.39 2.59 2.57 2.52 Total 1.95 2.05 2.18 2.34 2.40 2.42 2.48 2.60 2.58 2.59 Place of

Residence 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Pyongyang 1.67 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 Haamkyungdo 1.89 2.00 2.16 2.31 2.37 2.34 2.44 2.54 2.52 2.50 Pyongahndo 2.13 2.07 2.00 2.25 2.33 2.55 2.50 2.44 2.44 2.50 Hwanghaedo 2.43 2.80 3.00 3.00 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 4.00 Yangjakangdo 2.44 2.56 2.67 2.57 2.50 2.80 2.80 2.75 3.00 3.00 Kangwondo 2.33 2.33 2.25 2.75 2.75 2.67 2.50 4.00 4.00 4.00 Total 1.95 2.06 2.19 2.35 2.40 2.41 2.48 2.59 2.58 2.60

Job 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Worker 1.94 2.07 2.26 2.38 2.42 2.43 2.52 2.62 2.59 2.62 Farmer 2.00 2.09 1.94 2.27 2.44 2.57 2.50 2.40 2.60 2.60 Intelligent

People 1.75 1.81 1.87 1.83 2.00 2.18 2.20 2.38 2.50 2.50 Student 1.74 1.81 1.92 2.07 2.17 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 Officer 2.67 2.83 2.83 3.00 3.00 2.75 3.00 2.75 2.75 2.67 Soldier

(private Rank) 2.25 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.67 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 International

Officer 2.67 2.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 Total 1.94 2.05 2.18 2.31 2.39 2.39 2.46 2.54 2.55 2.56 Classification

of Social Strata

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Core Class 1.67 1.77 2.04 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.42 2.91 2.91 3.00

Worker

Class 1.95 2.08 2.17 2.37 2.47 2.51 2.58 2.58 2.63 2.53 Unstable

Class 1.90 2.02 2.17 2.32 2.26 2.34 2.45 2.56 2.43 2.45 Hostile Class 2.41 2.45 2.50 2.85 2.85 2.70 2.78 2.86 3.00 3.50 Total 1.95 2.05 2.18 2.35 2.42 2.46 2.54 2.64 2.64 2.65

The possibility of the existence of critical power did not show a high score with 2.60 as seen in <Table Ⅱ-29>. The following is the research analysis on the possibility of the existence of critical power by social and economic background variables.

First, males scored 2.68 and females 2.52, so males have a higher result. In other words, males seem to consider more that the critical power against the system exists. This is because males hear more

rumors at the workplace.

Second, Pyongyang, Hwanghaedo, and Kangwondo showed 4.00 in the research by region. This may be because of the cases of witnessing fly sheets or listening indirectly to the rumors of the corruption in the 6th Corps in 1995. Of particular note is that the critical power against the system decreased temporarily after 2002 in some regions like Pyongyang, Yangkangdo, and Jakangdo.

Third, overseas workers’scores are the highest with 3.00 in the research by occupation. They can access foreign information directly, so they seem to take a critical position against the system more often. Among the refugees who held a high position in North Korea, many of them are diplomats or studied abroad. In 2003, immediately after the 7.1 measures of 2002, the critical power of farmers and soldiers decreased.

Fourth, the hostile class’ score is high with 3.50 in the research by class. This is a thread which connects to the notion that if there exists critical powers of judgment against the system among refugees, we can predict that there would also be similar critical thinking among the hostile class or those otherwise dissatisfied.

The hostile class recognizes the existence of critical power more clearly through mutual information exchanges.

(3) Acts Critical to the North Korean System

Table Ⅱ-30. Existence of Criticizing Act against the Upper Class in North Korean

Gender 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Male 2.34 2.28 2.39 2.35 2.42 2.44 2.53 2.58 2.63 2.65 Female 1.73 1.81 1.95 2.06 2.08 2.19 2.32 2.48 2.49 2.55 Total 1.85 1.90 2.05 2.13 2.18 2.26 2.39 2.52 2.55 2.59

Place of

Residence 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Pyongyang 1.00 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 Haamkyungdo 1.85 1.90 2.06 2.17 2.19 2.27 2.41 2.49 2.49 2.57 Pyongahndo 1.88 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.20 2.44 2.67 2.50 Hwanghaedo 2.29 2.33 2.50 2.25 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 Yangjakangdo 1.78 1.78 1.89 2.00 2.17 2.17 2.17 2.25 2.00 2.00

Kangwondo 1.87 2.00 1.71 1.33 1.67 1.50 1.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 Total 1.85 1.90 2.04 2.13 2.15 2.23 2.36 2.48 2.51 2.57 Job 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Worker 1.86 1.90 2.12 2.25 2.19 2.34 2.43 2.57 2.52 2.68 Farmer 1.77 1.84 1.89 2.18 2.22 2.29 2.33 2.50 2.50 2.50 Intelligent

People 1.75 1.88 1.93 1.75 2.00 2.09 2.30 2.62 2.75 2.75 Student 1.66 1.66 1.73 1.75 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.83 1.60 1.60 Officer 2.33 2.33 2.50 2.60 2.60 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.50 2.00 Soldier

(private Rank)

1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.67 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 International

Officer 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 Total 1.82 1.87 2.03 2.12 2.16 2.25 2.34 2.47 2.46 2.52 Classification

of Social Strata

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Core Class 1.43 1.52 1.73 1.29 1.43 1.43 1.64 1.70 2.00 2.10

Worker

Class 1.89 1.95 2.13 2.24 2.33 2.45 2.50 2.68 2.71 2.72 Unstable

Class 1.91 1.98 2.10 2.31 2.28 2.39 2.41 2.57 2.50 2.55 Hostile Class 2.20 2.17 2.06 2.33 2.25 2.10 2.44 2.71 2.67 2.75 Total 1.86 1.91 2.06 2.14 2.19 2.26 2.37 2.53 2.54 2.57

The acts critical to the North Korean system seems not serious as seen in <Table Ⅱ-30>. It is merely the frequency which is increasing gradually. The following is the research analysis on the existence of acts critical to the North Korean system by social and economic background variables.

First, males scored 2.65 and females 2.55, so males admit the existence of fly sheets more. Males witness these cases more than females while traveling to other areas and working in the workplace.

Second, Kangwondo showed the highest score of 4.00 in the research by region because people in Kangwondo have witnessed flysheets in person. Kangwondo is the border area which has a great many scattered propaganda bills from South Korea. The appearance of ‘anti-Kim Jong Il fly sheets’ seems to be one result of the influence of these sheets. Third, overseas workers scored the highest with 3.00 in the research by occupation. This can be said to be the case since they have more chances to contact quality information rather than witness it in person. The next are workers with 2.68. They have opportunities to see fly sheets at the workplace or factory. Also they are working under the conditions dictated by poor distribution, so they have high levels of dissatisfaction.

Fourth, the hostile class is the highest with 2.75 in the research by class. The hostile class has met both sets of experiences, witnessing it personally and listening to rumors. There would be relatively many cases of critical acts in their places of residence, so there may also be many rumors. Many refugees said that they listened to such rumors for these reasons.