Education Sector
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
Policy Review
TVET
South Sudan
S
kills development through the expansion of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is increasingly seen as a critical to reducing poverty and unemployment, and also promoting economic recovery and sustainable development. The UNESCO Member States are increasingly dedicating their policy attention to respond to the demand for relevant skills in the world of work. This TVET Policy Review for South Sudan was conducted by the UNESCO in response to an official request from the Government of South Sudan.In a post-conflict context, South Sudan is facing important development challenges. A TVET system that is responsive to social and economic demands, and properly coordinated and monitored has the potentiality to contribute to addressing these multiple development challenges. The review identifies number of constraints faced by the current TVET system and strategies for improvements. The key message of this policy review is that the TVET system in South Sudan needs sustained transformation and revitalization if it is to realize its enormous potential as a contributor to the country’s development.
UNESCO 7 Place Fontenoy
75007 Paris Education Sector
Division for Policies and Lifelong Learning Systems Section of Youth, Literacy and Skills Development.
Policy Review
TVET
South Sudan
Published in 2014 by
the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France
© UNESCO 2014
This publication is available in Open Access under the Attribution-NoDerivs 3.0 IGO (CC-BY-ND 3.0 IGO) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/3.0/igo/). By using the content of this publication, the users accept to be bound by the terms of use of the UNESCO Open Access Repository (www.unesco.org/open-access/terms-use- ccbynd-en).
The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors; they are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization.
The TVET Policy Review series is coordinated by Borhene Chakroun, Chief, Section of Youth, Literacy and Skills Development. The main authors of this report are George Afeti and Stefan Thomas.
Front cover photo credits: © Alli Ngethi, © Daro Justine, © Sofia Murad
Composed and Printed by UNESCO
Table of Contents
List of Acronyms 6
Preface 8
Acknowledgements 9
Executive Summary 10
Key findings and observations ...10
Policy recommendations ...12
Improving the coordination and governance of the TVET system ... 12
Ensuring an effective and sustainable funding system ... 12
Moving towards a more demand-driven approach: linking to growing sectors and rural development ... 12
Expanding access and addressing marginalization ... 13
Adopting an incremental approach for quality development ... 13
Better meshing the general secondary system and TVET ... 14
Reinforcing monitoring, evaluation and information systems ... 14
1. The National Socioeconomic Context 15 1.1 The economic context ...17
1.2 The labour market ...21
1.3 Demand for skills from the productive sector and rural development ...23
1.4 Conclusion ...24
2. The Characteristics of the TVET System 25 2.1 The education system ...25
2.2 The provision of TVET in South Sudan ...26
2.3 Public–private partnerships in TVET ...27
2.4 Workplace learning and apprenticeship ...27
2.5 Conclusion ...27
3. Governance of the TVET System 28 3.1 Policy trends and legal framework ...28
3.2 Intermediary authority ...30
3.3 Conclusion ...32
4. Financing of TVET 33
4.1 Financing strategies ...33
4.2 Resource mobilization and utilization ...33
4.3 Conclusion ...35
5. Access and Participation 36 5.1 Perception and attractiveness of TVET ...36
5.2 Female participation ...36
5.3 Participation of ex-combatants in TVET ...37
5.4 Conclusion ...38
6. Quality Arrangements 39 6.1 Teachers and instructors ...39
6.2 Teaching and learning facilities ...39
6.3 Integration of ICT into training provision ...40
6.4 Internal quality assurance mechanisms ...40
6.5 Accreditation of training providers ...40
6.6 Conclusion ...40
7. Relevance and Impact 41 7.1 Identification of labour market needs and skills gaps ...41
7.2 Conclusion ...41
8. The Knowledge and Evidence Base 42 8.1 Monitoring and evaluation of education data and statistics ...42
8.2 TVET MISs ...43
8.3 Conclusion ...43
9. Recommended Next Steps 44 9.1 Improving the coordination and governance of the TVET system ...44
9.2 Ensuring an effective and sustainable funding system ...44
9.3 Moving towards a more demand-driven approach: linking to growing sectors and
rural development ...45
9.4 Expanding access and addressing marginalization ...45
9.5 Adopting an incremental approach for quality development ...45
9.6 Improving the links between the general secondary system and TVET ...46
9.7 Reinforcing monitoring, evaluation and information systems ...46
References 47 Annex 1: List of contacts and persons interviewed 48 Annex 2: Summary of recommendations 49 Tables
Table 1: Literacy Rates ...15Table 2: Poverty Profile by Urban and Rural Areas...16
Table 3: Selected Health Data from the Human Development Report 2014: South Sudan and sub-Saharan Africa...17
Table 4: Selected Economic Data from the Human Development Report 2014: South Sudan and sub-Saharan Africa. ...17
Table 5: Characteristics of the Formal and Informal Private Sectors in South Sudan ...19
Table 6: World Bank Ease of Doing Business Rankings in 2013 and 2014 for South Sudan ...20
Table 7: Selected Indicators for Infrastructure Services for Selected LDCs. ...20
Table 8: Secondary School Completers and Completion Rate by State and Gender, 2009 ...26
Boxes
Box 1: Regional and Global Value Chains, Industrialization and Skills in South Sudan ...21Box 2: Composition and Functions of TVET Apex Bodies ...31
Box 3: Key Conditions for Training Fund Success ...34
Box 4: Maximizing TVET Interventions in Post-conflict Countries ...38
Figures
Figure 1: Predicted Population Growth in South Sudan (in Millions) ...15Figure 2: Annual GDP Growth Rate Forecast ...18
Figure 3: New Entrants (Age 15-24) to the Labour Market in South Sudan (in Thousands) ...22
Figure 4: The Formal Education System of South Sudan ...25
List of Acronyms
AES alternative education system AfDB African Development Bank
BMZ Bundesministerium fuer wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (German Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development)
CAPA Commonwealth Association of Polytechnics in Africa CBT competency-based training
DDR disarmament, demobilization and reintegration DFID Department for International Development (UK) EIU Economist Intelligence Unit
ETF European Training Foundation
EU European Union
EMIS education management information system
FY financial year
GDP gross national product GIR gross intake rate GNI gross national income HDI Human Development Index
ICT information and communications technology IGAD Inter-Governmental Authority on Development ILO International Labour Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
IOM International Organization for Migration JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency LDC least developed country
LMIS labour market information system MIS management information system MTC multi-service training centre
MoCYS Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports
MoEST Ministry of Education and Science and Technology
MoLPSHRD Ministry of Labour, Public Service and Human Resources Development NDDRC National Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Commission NGO non-governmental organization
NIR net intake rate
NTQF National TVET Qualification Framework NES National Employment Service
ODA official development assistance
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PPP purchasing power parity
PWD person with disabilities
RALS Rapid Assessment of Learning Spaces SDA Skills Development Authority
SIDA Swedish International Development Agency SSR security sector reform
TVET Technical and vocational education and training
UCW Understanding Children’s Work programme
UNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNIDO United Nations International Development Organization
UNOCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs UNMISS United Nations Mission in South Sudan
VTC vocational training centre
Preface
UNESCO is implementing the strategy for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) adopted by the 181st session of its Executive Board (181 EX/Decision 8) in 2009. The strategy focuses on actions in three core areas: (i) provision of upstream policy advice and related capacity development; (ii) conceptual clarification of skills development and improvement of monitoring; and (iii) acting as a clearinghouse and informing the global TVET debate. The strategy is implemented through a range of advocacy, policy support and capacity development programmes and initiatives.
UNESCO conducts TVET policy reviews as part of dialogues with concerned governments to identify options and strategies for improving TVET policies and systems. The reviews are led by the TVET Section at UNESCO Headquarters, in close coordination with regional and field offices. In addition, the UNESCO - UNEVOC International Centre for TVET plays an important role in delivering capacity building and support.
Policy reviews aim to improve TVET policies and the TVET system in the reviewed country and to further local capacity to undertake strategic TVET policy analysis and planning that is aligned with sustainable development priorities.1 UNESCO’s work emphasises the need to ensure coherence between TVET and education policies, the economy, the labour market and social needs, and it promotes TVET policies based on the principles of inclusion and social cohesion, gender equality and sustainability.
In 2014, the Government of South Sudan requested UNESCO to provide upstream policy advice to review national TVET policies. This report, developed by two external experts, George Afeti and Stefan Thomas provides the key findings of the policy review mission conducted in August 2014.
1 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001874/187487e.pdf
Acknowledgements
UNESCO acknowledges the collaboration of officials from the South Sudan’s Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST), the Ministry of Labour, Public Service and Human Service Development, and the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports (MoCYS). Special thanks go to the Minister, the Deputy Minister, and the Undersecretary of the Ministry of Education for sharing their vision for the scientific and technological development of South Sudan, and the Directorate of TVET of MoEST for their cooperation during the mission.
UNESCO also would like to thank the managers, directors, and head teachers of the technical and vocational education and training (TVET) centres and institutions visited for giving us valuable insights into the challenges of the TVET sector and making suggestions for revitalizing the sector.
The mission would not have been successful without the active collaboration and support of the staff of the UNESCO office in Juba under the leadership of Mr. Salah Khaled. Ms. Carolyn Medel-Anonuevo coordinated the entire mission.
The additional financial support was generously provided by the UK Department for International Development (DfID) and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). This was crucial in allowing UNESCO’s expert team to engage with the diverse stakeholders for two days. Finally, UNESCO acknowledges and thanks all the many international partners and agencies present in South Sudan whose reports UNESCO has consulted.
Executive Summary
This review of the technical and vocational education and training (TVET) landscape in South Sudan sought to assess and evaluate the overall technical and vocational skills development policy framework in the country in order to propose strategies and actions that would contribute to strengthening the TVET sector. The objective is to make the sector more responsive to the human resource and labour market needs of the country. Taking into account the national socio-economic context, the review focused on seven key thematic areas, based on UNESCO’s TVET policy review guidelines:
a) overview of the TVET system b) governance issues and challenges c) financing of TVET
d) access and participation e) quality arrangements
f) relevance, employability, and impact
g) assessment of the TVET knowledge and evidence base.
Key findings and observations
South Sudan is facing important development challenges including political instability and inter-tribal conflicts, poor infrastructure, over-dependence on oil production, strong import dependence with virtually no manufacturing or commercial agricultural base or services sector, extremely low human capital, with one of the world’s lowest adult literacy levels (of about 27 per cent), high poverty levels, very weak health and sanitation indicators, and a large pastoralist, non-formal economy, with over 80 per cent of the population living in rural areas.
Against this background, TVET is drawing increased attention from the government and international partners.
TVET’s potential contribution to redressing the multiple development challenges is well recognized by national stakeholders. However, this policy review key message is that the TVET system in South Sudan needs sustained transformation and revitalization if it is to realize its enormous potential as a contributor to the country’s development.
The UNESCO policy review team, in consultation with national stakeholders and international partners, concludes that the constraints highlighted below prevent the TVET system in South Sudan from meeting the growing demands.
Poor infrastructure and institutional capacity: It is estimated that only about thirty of the sixty-two TVET-oriented public and private institutions that exist in the country are currently operational. At present, the exact number and location of these functioning TVET institutions and centres is difficult to ascertain because of the conflict situation in the country and the absence of a credible and centralized TVET data and information system. Vocational education is currently offered at only five public secondary technical/commercial/agricultural schools under the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST). All five institutions are located in Wau or the capital Juba. Several other technical secondary schools are not in operation because of severe infrastructure damage to their facilities and the insecurity in parts of the country. Vocational training, on the other hand, is provided through a network of public vocational training centres (VTCs), operating under the Ministry of Labour, Public Service and Human Resources Development (MoLPSHRD) and a number of private providers, which are mainly non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and faith-based organizations. The VTCs offer both non-formal short courses (3–6 months) and long duration (formal) courses of up to two years. MoCYS also operates youth training centres which run unstructured informal basic occupational skills training courses (lasting between 1 week and 3 months) that target mainly unemployed individuals and internally displaced persons through some form of apprenticeship at the community level. Recently, the National Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Commission (NDDRC) piloted a short-term vocational training programme (3 months) for about 290 ex-combatants to acquire basic occupational skills to facilitate their reinsertion into society.
Fragmentation and policy incoherence: At least ten different ministries are involved in TVET. There is no standardized TVET curriculum or standardized certification system in place. Consequently, the TVET system is not only fragmented but also lacks coherence. In an effort to improve the governance and efficiency of the system, MoEST and MoLPSHRD have developed, separately, two policy documents: the National Technical and Vocational Education and Training Strategy (MoEST, 2013b) and the South Sudan Vocational Training Policy (MoLPSHRD, 2008). Both documents are similar in policy direction, choices and strategies, differing only on the target learner groups. The MoEST policy document focuses mainly on formal TVET, while that of the MoLPSHRD addresses the concerns of both formal and non-formal TVET. These two policy documents are still in draft form and are not yet operational. Currently, therefore, there is no active policy and legal framework to guide and drive the development of TVET in the country. However, the existence of the two draft policy documents provides the basis and momentum for developing a single national TVET policy.
Government funding for the TVET sector is inadequate: Government budgetary allocations only cover staff salaries. Increasing allocations to meet TVET expansion and quality needs are necessary. Furthermore, the sector is heavily dependent on foreign donor support. Designing and implementing sustainable financing mechanisms for the TVET sector is a huge challenge that needs to be addressed.
Access to TVET is limited and inequitable: Regarding access to TVET and participation of all categories of learners, it was observed that some disciplines are often over-subscribed and many learners are often denied admission because of the low capacity of the better-performing TVET centres and institutions. These disciplines include auto mechanics, building and construction, and welding and metal fabrication. There is very little diversity in the programmes offered, which at present cover traditional crafts and trades. This further limits TVET responses to both social and economic demands. Female participation is significant in areas such as computer skills and tailoring, but much less so in the traditionally male-dominated disciplines, such as electricity and auto mechanics.
Interestingly, faith-based organizations and NGOs do not have any age or academic barriers to their TVET programmes, a policy that deserves to be encouraged.
The two developed policies do not explicitly reference the need to provide better access to training for out-of-school youths, particularly those who dropped out during or after primary school. Nor does either policy explicitly focus on poverty as a constraint to participating in TVET. The training needs of rural youths are acknowledged, but the policies do not explicitly state that there should be a special emphasis on training in rural and remote areas, and on increasing the supply of training in all regions of the country.
Absence of a quality development framework: Assessment and examinations in the VTCs are conducted internally. There are no nationally agreed standards against which the practical skills proficiencies of trainees are benchmarked. Quality standards therefore vary from one institution to the other. No formal external or internal quality assurance mechanisms are in existence.
Low relevance and cooperation with labour market: Currently, there is no employer or industry involvement in the development of the training curriculum. There is also no systematic institutional culture of conducting tracer studies to gather information on the destination of trainees in the labour market as a strategy to measure the relevance and of training programmes and the employability of their graduates. However, the little information obtained from some of the institutions suggests that most TVET graduates are easily absorbed into the workforce. Some trainees also benefit from the free provision of work tools and equipment to facilitate their entry into the world of work as self- employed artisans or entrepreneurs. A key observation is that the employment market is characterized by a large presence of foreign workers and the limited size of the private sector.
Lack of evidence base: In the absence of credible data and statistics on trainee enrolments, output and employment, it is difficult to evaluate the impact of the TVET system and its relevance to economic and social demands. There is no TVET management information system (MIS) or monitoring tool in place to inform decision-making in such areas as policy formulation, funding strategies, curriculum changes, system management and training relevance.
The need for such a system is acknowledged, but it appears that the lack of relevant technical expertise and resources has so far prevented its development. Although there have been some efforts in the recent past to collect and analyse general education data and statistics, the need for a TVET specific MIS is a key challenge that needs to be addressed. Another key issue is the lack of a labour market information system (LMIS) to help align training with employment opportunities. Employment and labour market information and data are required for designing appropriate labour-responsive TVET programmes.
Policy recommendations
Based on the key findings and observations, the following recommendations are proposed for consideration by the government:
Improving the coordination and governance of the TVET system
1. In the short term, an inter-ministerial task force should be constituted to coordinate TVET in South Sudan and drive the process of harmonizing the two existing TVET policy documents developed by MoEST and MoLPSHRD into a single national TVET policy. This should be one of the first priorities of the inter-ministerial task force. The outputs of the taskforce work should be (i) a unified policy and strategic framework, (ii) a programme-based approach, and (iii) an assessment of the costs of policy and related programmes and the implications for public financing and donor support.
2. Another recommended action point for the proposed task force is to ensure that TVET is clearly articulated in the national development strategies/plans and that key policy-makers are convinced about the importance of TVET for the development of the country. Creating closer links between TVET and other policy areas (such as agriculture, health, energy and infrastructure) is a crucial step. When other sectors are convinced of the added value that TVET brings to their own endeavours, additional funding, capacities and widened accountability and policies will follow.
Ensuring an effective and sustainable funding system
3. With increased value being placed on TVET as a central and cross-cutting element of education and development, it is clear that sector budgets will necessarily have to be adapted to reflect the new position of TVET and the demand on it. From discussion with national stakeholders, and taking into account international experience in this field, three broad options could be envisaged, discussed and decided upon:
• Increase the budget allocation: The TVET system is chronically underfunded. In the short term, given the economic situation, increasing budget allocation seems not to be affordable.
• Rely further on international funding: The government is relying heavily on international support for upgrading and maintaining TVET institutions. This is not sustainable in the mid-term perspective as key donors are looking for greater government investment and long-term commitment.
• Set-up a new source of funding: There is an agreement among the national stakeholders regarding the necessity of designing and implementing an effective and sustainable financing mechanism to mobilize domestic (public and private) funding for TVET. In view of the high incidence of poverty in the country and the poor prospect of mobilizing training levy contributions from a currently weak private sector, the government should consider alternative approaches. For example, the government adopted in 2012 a Petroleum Revenue Management Act, which establishes a formalized structure for distribution of petroleum revenues to immediate budgetary needs, savings and revenue stabilization, and direct transfers to petroleum-producing states and affected communities. The government could consider allocating a reasonable percentage of the country’s oil revenue to development of TVET. Over time other development sectors can also be expected to invest a greater proportion of their budgets in TVET.
Moving towards a more demand-driven approach: linking to growing sectors and rural development
4. Given the economic context in the country and the importance of rural areas, orienting TVET towards demands require analysis of diverse economic activities, running from subsistence activities (both farming and non-farming) through ‘traditional’ crafts and trades, to growing economic sectors such as infrastructure, hospitality and services, and other relevant and priority sectors identified by the government and national stakeholders.
5. The diversity of possibilities for improving established livelihoods and work opportunities and developing new ones demands extreme flexibility, imagination and resourcefulness. The government should pursue a strategy of private sector involvement, decentralization and capacity-nurturing at local levels that will permit skills development responses to local actual and potential patterns of livelihood, work and business opportunities in priority industry sectors such as agriculture, infrastructure and hospitality.
Expanding access and addressing marginalization
6. Balancing growth and quality is a major policy aspect that the government should address. In particular, there is a balance that needs to be set between devoting resources to increased access to TVET programmes and using the same resources to improve the quality of programmes. In the short term it may be necessary to assess the current situation of all the sixty-two TVET establishments in the country with a view to rendering them operational as a strategy to expand access to TVET in the country. In this regard, an updated mapping or situational analysis of the TVET institutional landscape will be necessary. The mapping should lead to an upgrading plan linked with labour market and individual demands, with a focus on priority sectors (such as agriculture, energy, construction and services) and local needs (such as the value chain of agriculture products, and rural development).
7. Addressing skills development programmes for the geographically, economically, socially and physically marginalized should be central to policy development. A clear strategy is needed to promote the acquisition of foundation and employability skills and the participation of the most vulnerable groups in the South Sudanese society. Among these are girls and women, pastoralist communities, rural youth and ex- combatants, especially in the agricultural sector. The special skills needs of persons with disabilities (PWDs) also deserve attention. As a post-conflict country, South Sudan’s TVET programmes for all categories of learners should include instruction in peace education, conflict prevention, citizenship and participation in the democratic space of the country. Training should also include modules on life skills, entrepreneurship and financial literacy, and also on literacy and numeracy which are key elements for development.
8. Rural TVET programmes face particular operational problems, such as access to facilities, materials and trained teachers. These problems can only be tackled effectively through better partnership, collaboration and coordination between provincial and local levels. The organization and delivery of such training should combine training in TVET institutions with community-based initiatives. Information and communications technology (ICT) and mobile learning can expand access to a certain extent. Given the illiteracy rates among the youth and adult populations, combinations of livelihood skills training and literacy education should be considered. The means and feasibility of funding these initiatives in partnership with NGOs and private actors should be looked at closely.
9. The participation of women at all levels of education is low. The elimination of gender disparities remains a challenge at all levels, and this should be a priority in TVET. There is thus a need for the government to implement interventions with a view to eliminating gender discrimination in both government and non- government training programmes, to support enrolment in TVET trades with better prospects in the labour market. These interventions should include awareness-raising programmes and facilitation of gender- mainstreaming efforts in TVET.
10. Furthermore, rather than providing training themselves, the concerned ministries can focus on creating an enabling environment for TVET and skills development by (i) providing a clear policy framework of regulations and incentives for training providers including NGOs, private investors and communities; (ii) supporting actions to improve the quality and relevance of TVET and skills development programmes through curriculum and training package development, trainer training and skills assessment; and (iii) providing relevant and reliable information to help prospective learners or job-seekers make informed choices.
Adopting an incremental approach for quality development
11. The implementation of a fully functional outcome-based TVET delivery system in South Sudan appears unrealistic for now, in view of the costs, technical expertise and strong industry involvement required for implementing such a training methodology. In the short to medium term, a stronger curriculum focus on
practical skills training, the participation of employers in training delivery, and a more rigorous examination and practical skills assessment with proficiency testing as proof of competence may be considered as an interim alternative to a fully outcome-based or competency-based training methodology.
12. To increase the relevance and employability of trainees and ease their transition into the world of work, an integrated approach to job placement is necessary. This should involve advice on jobs and training opportunities, procedures for starting or doing business, and micro-finance interventions. This requires the establishment of a supporting system that can provide these additional services as well as the mobilization of other stakeholders beyond the ministries concerned, including micro-credit associations, banks and other actors. Another key element of such an integrated approach is an LMIS which will not only help align training opportunities with job opportunities but also provide useful information on the skills gaps and shortages in the human resource base of the country.
13. The undertrained teaching body and the lack of appropriate teaching materials hinder qualitative improvements to TVET system. The recruitment and retention of well-qualified and competent teachers should be prioritized. Clearly, teachers have a central role in strengthening TVET system capacities to undertake successful TVET strategies. Government policy and strategies should be concerned with all staff contributing to TVET teachers, instructors, trainers and tutors whether they work in schools, training centres, community initiatives or enterprises.
Better meshing the general secondary system and TVET
14. Taking into account the present and near-future performance of secondary education, bringing it closer to the world of work can contribute to creating an education system that is more sensitive to different learners’
contexts and futures. At present, many young people enter the labour market unprepared, making them more vulnerable to demographic and demand changes affecting that market. In this context, the government might consider the following actions: (i) Connect general secondary education with the world of work through developing in learners the capacity to solve problems; communication, interpersonal and entrepreneurial capabilities; and other skills they need to be able to adapt to different work environments and thereby improve their chances of accessing gainful employment; (ii) Support more substantive careers guidance, which could be progressively developed at different points of the education system; (iii) Implement and evaluate a few pilot schemes integrating forms of vocationalization of general secondary education, to make it possible to learn from experience and build adequate policies.
Reinforcing monitoring, evaluation and information systems
15. The monitoring and evaluation capacity of both TVET providers and supervisory bodies needs to be strengthened. In the short term, adopting a simple set of indicators to monitor the TVET system should be considered. In the long term, more sophisticated approaches supported by TVET MIS and LMIS should be envisaged.
16. Progress should be also made in registering and ensuring the quality of TVET institutions both public and private. Registration requirements provide a policy lever for upgrading TVET institutions and improving the quality and relevance of their provision. In the short term, registration should be simple and based on minimum information. In the long term, registration requirements should be shifted from input requirements such as courses, teachers and infrastructures, to output requirements, namely learning outcomes and labour market outcomes. These can be measured in multiple ways, including placements, wages and levels of self- employment.
1. The National Socioeconomic Context
South Sudan declared its independence from Sudan and became a sovereign state on 9 July 2011. A few days after its independence, the Republic of South Sudan was accepted as the 193rd member of the United Nations, and in October 2011 it became the 194th Member State of UNESCO. After decades of civil war, the government undoubtedly faces severe social and economic challenges. Three years following independence, the new state still lacks fully functional governmental and administrative institutions, education and health services, food and infrastructure. South Sudan will have to be built largely from scratch.
South Sudan has an estimated population of around 10.3 million in 2012, with about 560,000 persons living in the capital, Juba. The country is divided into ten states: Jonglei (estimated population according to the 2008 census:
1,359,000), Central Equatoria (1,104,000), Warrap (973,000), Upper Nile (964,000), Eastern Equatoria (906,000), Northern Bahr el-Ghazal (721,000), Lakes (696,000), Western Equatoria (619,000), Unity (586,000), and Western Bahr el-Ghazal (333,000). South Sudan is a youthful country, with 47.8 per cent of the population under 15 years of age (South Sudan Statistical Year Book, 2011). Partly because of years of war and conflict, illiteracy rates are high. Only about 27 per cent of the adult population (15 years and older) are able to read and write. The situation is slightly better for youth between 15 and 24, with 40 per cent having some level of literacy or education.
Table 1: Literacy Rates
Adult literacy rate (15 years and over) 27%
Male adult literacy rate 40%
Female adult literacy rate 16%
Literacy rate for population aged 15–24 40%
Male literacy rate (15–24) 55%
Female literacy rate (15–24) 28%
Urban adult literacy rate 53%
Rural adult literacy rate 22%
Source: South Sudan National Baseline Household Survey (2009).
Demographic growth is high in South Sudan, and the population is expected to increase quickly to reach 12 million in 2015 (see Figure 1), which will have implications for social services including education and training.
Figure 1: Predicted Population Growth in South Sudan (in Millions)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Source: IMF (2014).
The official language of South Sudan is English, with Arabic being spoken widely by the population. There are an estimated 200 different ethnic groups, and 64 local languages are spoken. The most widely used of these are Dinka (2–3 million), Nuer, Shilluk, Zande, Bari, Ubangian and Otuho. South Sudan has a non-Islamic legal system and a bicameral parliament. As a result of the civil conflict, the term of the National Legislative Assembly (four years from July 2011) has been extended until 2017 or 2018. The current government is dominated by the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM) (EIU, 2014, pp. 18–22).
The recent conflict between the government and rebels led by former vice president Dr. Riek Machar has cast another shadow on the economic and social development of the country. According to the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) in South Sudan, 1.7 million people have been displaced and around 4 million face alarming food insecurity as a result of the fighting that started in December 2013.
Fifty-one per cent of the population live below the national poverty line (AfDB, 2014). The poverty profile (see Table 2) shows that most of the population is living in rural areas and that poverty affects rural areas more severely than urban ones.
Table 2: Poverty Profile by Urban and Rural Areas Population as a share of
South Sudan total (%) Poor as share of South Sudan population (%)
South Sudan 100 100
Urban 15.6 7.5
Rural 84.4 92.5
Source : South Sudan Statistical Yearbook 2011
In its recent African Economic Outlook paper on South Sudan, the African Development Bank (AfDB) identified six major challenges for the country (2014, p. 2):
• political instability and inter-tribal conflicts
• poor infrastructure
• over-dependence on oil production
• strong import dependence with virtually no manufacturing or commercial agricultural base or services sector
• extremely low human capital, with one of the world’s lowest adult literacy levels (of about 27 per cent), high poverty levels, very weak health and sanitation indicators
• a large pastoralist, non-formal economy, with over 80 per cent of the population living in rural areas (compared with around 60 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa).
In South Sudan, the provision of and access to health and nutrition services is extremely limited. In 2011, health expenditure as a share of gross domestic product (GDP) was only 1.6 per cent compared with 6.3 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa. The financial burden of illness, especially for the poor, is very high. According to the Human Development Report 2014 (UNDP, 2014), the infant mortality rate was 67 per 1,000 live births compared with 64 in sub-Saharan Africa (see Table 3).
Table 3: Selected Health Data from the Human Development Report 2014: South Sudan and sub-Saharan Africa
Year South Sudan sub-Saharan Africa
Life expectancy at birth (years) 2013 55.3 56.8
Mortality rates for infants
(per 1,000 live births) 2012 67 64
Mortality rates under age of 5
(per 1,000 live births) 2012 104 97
Child malnutrition; stunting
(% under age of 5) 2008–12 31.1 37.8
Health expenditure (% of GDP) 2011 1.6 6.3
Source: UNDP (2014).
South Sudan has made progress in achieving universal primary education (Millennium Development Goal 2), but the goal will not be met by 2015 (AfDB, 2014, p. 9). The very long history of instability and conflict has inevitably affected the provision of social services and the quality of human resources. The country’s institutional capacity and public spending are inadequate to achieve increasing participation at other levels of the education system, improving the quality of education at all levels and the health of the population. Furthermore, it is estimated that about 70 per cent of social services in the country are delivered by NGOs, which the government has little or no capacity to regulate (AfDB, 2014, p. 9).
1.1 The economic context
The South Sudan government budget is currently entirely dependent on revenue from oil. According to the budget for the fiscal year 2012/13, oil revenue accounted for 98 per cent of government income excluding aid2 and 71 per cent of GDP. According to the World Bank(2013), the South Sudanese non-oil economy is extremely underdeveloped, which contributes to the poor living standards and growing youth unemployment. The reliance on oil has distorted the economy, and is also associated with poor governance, pervasive corruption, and weak institutional and human capacity. The current gross national income (GNI) per capita is estimated at US$1,450 (see Table 4).
Table 4: Selected Economic Data from the Human Development Report 2014: South Sudan and sub-Saharan Africa.
Year South Sudan sub-Saharan Africa
GDP (2011 PPP $ billion) 2012 19.4 2,797.2
GNI per capita (2011 PPP $) 2013 1,450 3,152
Share of agriculture, hunting, forestry
and fisheries (% of GDP) 2012 9.7 18.4
International trade (% of GDP) 2012 94.2 76.9
Health expenditure (% of GDP) 2011 1.6 6.3
Source: UNDP (2014).
The current conflict is likely to delay South Sudan’s further plans to organize an oil licensing round and to sell mining concessions. As a direct result of the crisis, more money is being diverted to the army and the war effort.
2 In 2012, the main donors to the Republic of South Sudan (official development assistance – ODA, gross disbursement, in US$ million) were Canada (65.5), Denmark (38.5), Germany (34.3), Japan (75.5), Netherlands (45.2), Norway (73.6), Sweden (72.2), United Kingdom (173.2), United States (773.3), EU Institutions (46.9), Global Fund (44.6), UNHCR (17.3), UNICEF (7.9) and the World Food Programme (16.2). Source:
OECD.
A full and lasting peace will need to be restored before South Sudan can make progress in the development of legal and regulatory frameworks for the economy and in attracting foreign investment. South Sudan is eligible for concessional lending from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). However, ongoing concerns about the lack of experience of the civil service, as well as mismanagement and corruption, may complicate access to funding.
Improvements in monetary and fiscal policy will depend largely on technical assistance from international donors, particularly the IMF and the World Bank (EIU, 2014, pp. 6–9).
A strong rebound during the first half of the fiscal year 2013/14 seemed possible, but recent unrest has cast a shadow over the prospects for economic recovery and development. Based on the existing oil production profile and expected growth in non-oil sectors, such as agriculture, construction and services, the GDP percentage change was expected to reach 40 per cent by the end of the financial year (FY) 2013/14, following two years of strong economic contraction (after independence in 2011). However, the recent civil strife cast a shadow over the prospects for economic recovery and development. Oil production and associated investments remain key drivers of growth, but the civil strife has seen the production of oil cut in half.
In the medium term however, if the civil war that started in December 2013 is resolved and order and security are restored, South Sudan has the potential to grow its GDP by as much as 7 or 8 per cent per year (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Annual GDP Growth Rate Forecast
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
Source: IMF (2014).
South Sudan has not yet been able to build up a significant private sector. The formal and informal private sectors are characterized by relatively small and young firms.
There are a total of 7,209 formal businesses in the ten state capitals of Southern Sudan, of which 84 per cent are shops or hotels and restaurants. Torit had the least with 244, and Juba the most with 2,652 (South Sudan Business Survey,2010).
The majority of the firms are engaged in the wholesale and retail trades (see Table 5). Informal businesses are usually characterized by multiple activities, which makes it difficult to classify and categorize them.
Manufacturing and agro-processing firms constitute only 2.7 per cent of the total number of businesses in the country. Almost all products are imported from the neighbouring states of Kenya, Ethiopia and Uganda. The initial plans of the government to concentrate on promoting agriculture and building up a processing industry have been frustrated by the ongoing conflicts. The decades of fighting that have forced people to leave their land and their homes mean that a lot of basic agricultural knowledge has been lost. A large proportion of farmland is unusable because it has been, or is thought to have been, mined.
Table 5: Characteristics of the Formal and Informal Private Sectors in South Sudan The formal private sector characteristics
• Most businesses (90%) are less than 5 years old.
• Most firms (over 85%) rely on internal resources. On average, they use the owners’ savings to provide 80% of their start-up capital.
• Most (90%) employed fewer than 20 people.
• Most (70%) were engaged in the wholesale and retail trade. Manufacturing and agro-processing firms only constituted 2.7% of the total number of businesses in the country.
The informal private sector characteristics
• Many are entrepreneurial in character.
• Most businesses are operated by their owners.
• Most are permanent establishments, not temporary or transitional entities.
• Most informal businesses carry out multiple activities, making it difficult for local authorities to classify and categorize them for the purposes of issuing appropriate local licences.
• Most avoid paying licence fees. They report that when they are caught by the authorities they receive demands for informal payments or bribes.
• There is a rough dichotomy between survivalist enterprises whose owners are content with the status quo that provides them with a living, and entrepreneurs who wish to expand their operations but face constraints including lack of access to finance. It is therefore important for policy-makers to disaggregate the informal sector in order to design policies which will foster growth and formalization.
• Many informal businesses lack sufficient information on formalization. Survivalist businesses especially often have little or no conception of regulatory requirements beyond the basic trading licence.
Source: AfDB (2013, pp.15–16).
Developing domestic production and exports in the non-oil sectors is important for South Sudan’s drive for industrialization, yet its participation in global value chains is still in the very early stages. South Sudan has enormous potential in sectors such as mining, agriculture, forestry, livestock, fisheries and energy, but supply capacity remains severely constrained (AfDB, 2014, p. 10).
The discussions on economic development policies are focused on the need for balanced growth and the strengthening of the non-oil sectors, which are crucial to achieving sustainable and inclusive growth. In this context, the agricultural sector is expected to play a crucial role for additional growth. This would not only allow the economy to diversify away from oil dependence in the medium and long term, but also reduce poverty and food insecurity.
South Sudan’s agriculture is based on livestock and a wide range of crops such as grains, fruits, vegetables, coffee and tea. However, agricultural production has remained far below its potential, and the region has been a net importer of agricultural products in the past. In order to improve agricultural production, the productivity of farms will have to increase significantly. That means better transport infrastructure, agricultural technology and support services, including financing and availability of relevant skills. In the past, agricultural production has also been constrained by insecurity in many rural areas as well as by the increasing rural–urban migration of young people.
The 2014 edition of the World Bank’s report on the business environment, Doing Business 2014, gives South Sudan a world ranking of 186, down from 184 in 2013. As the World Bank review shows (see Table 6), the private sector in South Sudan is negatively affected by multiple factors including the excessively complicated administrative procedures involved in starting a business, cumbersome licensing procedures for construction, access to credit, and taxation. The comparison between the results for 2013 and 2014 shows that the international ranking of South Sudan is not improving, and is worsening in many areas, in particular taxation and access to construction permits.
This situation makes it impossible for a competitive private sector to emerge in South Sudan and for the country to diversify its economy. If it is to climb up to the ranking of countries that provide a truly attractive business environment, South Sudan must tackle the challenge of transforming the rules, the habits and the behaviour that undermine economic activity.
Table 6: World Bank Ease of Doing Business Rankings in 2013 and 2014 for South Sudan
Indicator DB 2014 Rank DB 2013 Rank Change in ranking
Starting a business 140 135 -5
Dealing with construction permits 171 162 -9
Getting electricity 184 178 -6
Registering property 183 180 -3
Getting credit 180 177 -3
Protecting investors 182 182 No change
Paying taxes 92 67 -25
Trading across borders 187 187 No change
Enforcing contracts 87 88 -1
Resolving insolvency 189 189 No change
Source: World Bank (2014).
South Sudan has virtually no infrastructure, and is lagging behind its neighbours and other least developed countries (LDCs) (see Table 7). The country has practically no energy supply, water/sanitation, telecommunications or transport networks. Following its declaration of independence, however, the government of South Sudan has drawn up a comprehensive development plan over a 3-year period with the support of the donor community. The overall development objectives are improving governance, deepening peace-building and improving security, improving and expanding education and health services, and achieving rapid rural transformation to improve livelihoods and expand employment opportunities (Government of South Sudan, 2011). The specific objectives include boosting agricultural production and the road and energy infrastructure. Apart from the agricultural sector, therefore, there is a huge potential for growth in infrastructure improvement projects, particularly in the telecommunication, construction, energy and services sectors, as soon as the government starts again to invest its oil revenues in the build-up of the country (World Bank, 2013, p. 9).
Table 7: Selected Indicators for Infrastructure Services for Selected LDCs.
Country Road network paved (%)
Access to electricity
(% of population)
Access to improved water
(% of population)
Access to improved sanitation (% of
population)
Telephone subscribers per 100 people
Burkina Faso 4.2 10.2 76.3 12.6 7.7
Burundi 10.4 2.1 72.5 41.4 2.9
Malawi 45.0 7.5 81.6 59.2 6.1
Niger 20.6 .. 51.2 8.1 ..
Rwanda 19.0 5.4 64.8 22.6 3.5
South Sudan 2.0 1.0 27 16 ..
Source: AfDB (2012b).
South Sudan’s budgetary position will continue to be determined largely by oil revenues and international aid in the longer term. If and when a sustainable peace is restored and exports resume reliably, South Sudan will probably continue to focus on infrastructure development and agriculture, as well as attempts to improve human resource development indicators. Should export performance remain weak, the authorities are likely to target increased taxes on selected consumer goods, the maintenance of tight controls on the public sector payroll, and the sale of oil and mining concessions (EIU, 2014, pp. 6–9).
The business outlook for South Sudan remains uncertain, and business losses to date are unlikely to be recoverable.
Investment in construction, manufacturing, consumer goods, energy, telecommunications and the hospitality sector is almost entirely centred on Juba, and led by foreign companies, mostly from Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia and South Africa. Kenyan companies have reported significant losses since the outbreak of fighting. In the longer term, official ambitions to diversify the economy by developing sectors such as tourism are unlikely to have a substantial impact within the next five to ten years. Provided that peace is restored, it can be expected that the economy of South Sudan will be boosted by increased grants and foreign investment, although donors’ serious concerns about corruption and violence could act as a limiting factor. Peace both domestically and with Sudan is crucial if South Sudan is to realize its economic potential (EIU, 2014, pp. 6–9). Indeed, at an investment conference held in Juba in November 2013, one month prior to the eruption of the current conflict, more than 500 chief executives from international firms who participated in the conference did pledge to invest massively in the country.
The AfDB proposes a three-step approach to improve the integration of South Sudan’s economy into regional and global value chains. These steps will require adequate skills development measures (see Box 1).
Box 1: Regional and Global Value Chains, Industrialization and Skills in South Sudan
‘South Sudan needs to focus on global value chains that are of high value but requiring a low skill set, and not dependent on having a well-developed road and transport infrastructure. For example, gum arabic and shea nut trees are available in 7 of the 10 states. Hides and skins too are available in all the 10 states. South Sudan could usefully invest in a nationwide process to prioritize and develop 4 to 5 value chains that pass this test and create jobs. Second, South Sudan needs to embrace regional economic co-operation to ‘import’ skills and allow itself to move up the value chain. As a producer, South Sudan will have to focus at the bottom of the chain in the short term. In the medium term, South Sudan will climb the chain and ‘import’ skills in the form of economic co- operation to quicken this transition. The development of national value chains, especially for food, will be critical.
Regional value chains will dominate global ones, as the county strengthens its ties within the region. In this context, South Sudan will, as a general principle, need to prioritize its national, regional and global engagement in that order. Third, barriers that inhibit participation in global value chains have to be addressed in the medium to long term even within the context of conflict. The efforts to improve road infrastructure, capacity of institutions and security of persons and property will need to be revived quickly. These are binding in most parts of the country. Additional barriers such as the relative absence of a private sector and general low levels of skills and literacy (e.g. only 27% are literate) will have to be addressed too.’
Source: AfDB (2014, p. 11.)
1.2 The labour market
In 2011, the Understanding Children’s Work (UCW) programme published an in-depth survey of the labour market in South Sudan. The report assessed labour market conditions and highlighted a number of key challenges faced by the new country in ensuring adequate livelihood opportunities for its population. To date, the UCW survey has provided the most detailed insight into South Sudan’s labour market. A labour market survey by the World Bank is under way but had not been released for official use at the time this report was prepared.
According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) (see Figure 3), the number of new entrants to the labour market in South Sudan is estimated to increase dramatically to reach 300,000 in 2020.
The difficulties youth encounter in entering the workforce and developing the skills needed to ensure gainful and productive employment can have profound effects on national investment climates, economic growth and sustainable development prospects. Policies need to ensure that demand will offset these pressures and allow the market to absorb these new cohorts into productive employment.
Figure 3: New Entrants (Age 15-24) to the Labour Market in South Sudan (in Thousands)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
2000 2005 2010 2020 2030 2050
Source: UNDESA (2013).
According to the UCW report (2011, pp. 7–15), the labour market in South Sudan is characterized by the following key features and challenges:
Very high rates of child labour, low levels of education participation (even for the 10–14 and 15–24 years age cohorts) and high rates of youth unemployment. A very large share of the active population is found in non-wage, low-productivity employment concentrated in the agriculture sector;
75 per cent of the working-age population (aged 15–64 years) is economically active. A significant share of the active population (12.6 per cent) are without jobs. Among the inactive population, about 25 per cent are in education, but an even larger share is comprised of discouraged workers (31 per cent). The remaining inactive persons are neither in education nor interested in employment. Females predominate in this latter group;
Levels of unemployment are higher for young people and for persons from poor families. Labour force participation is higher in rural areas than in urban ones across almost the whole 15–64 years age spectrum, owing largely to the impact of labour-intensive agriculture in absorbing the rural work force.
Male participation in the labour force is generally higher than that of females, although this is not the case among young (15–24-year-old) persons;
The differences between states in labour force participation and status are large. The results underscore the importance of state-specific approaches in dealing with this issue. The unemployment rate varies from 21 per cent in Jonglei to just 5 per cent in Eastern Equatoria. Labour market participation ranges from 84 per cent in Eastern Equatoria to 70 per cent in Central and Western Equatoria;
Employment is characterized by low-productivity, unremunerated work concentrated in the agriculture sector. About 84 per cent of those employed are in non-waged work, for their family (43 per cent), for others (5 per cent) or on their own account (37 per cent). The agriculture sector accounts for 63 per cent of total employment. Only a small minority of workers enjoy formal salaried employment (13 per cent) or employment in the tertiary sector (19 per cent). These patterns are predominant among rural dwellers (90 per cent are in non-waged work, 69 per cent are in agriculture, and 67 per cent fall into both these categories) and the poor (93 per cent are in non-waged work and 75 per cent in agriculture). The composition of employment varies between states. However, non-waged work and the agriculture sector predominate in all of them. The share of those in non-waged work ranges from 9 per cent in Eastern Equatoria to 61 per cent in Western Bahar El Ghazal, and of those in agriculture from 77 per cent in Western Equatoria to 47 per cent in Western Bahar El Ghazal;
About 75 per cent of those actively seeking work are doing so for the first time. It is likely that the high proportion of first-time job seekers is in part the reflection of returning internally displaced persons, and to a lesser extent ex-combatants entering the labour market. Unemployment rates differ between urban and rural areas. Differences in unemployment by gender are relatively small;
The labour force is characterized by extremely low levels of human capital. This highlights the consequent importance of literacy, skills training and other forms of education and training, particularly for young workers. Almost 90 per cent of workers are without any qualification, while less than 2 per cent possess post-secondary qualifications. Education levels are higher among urban residents, among males and among the wealthy. Education levels also vary by state, but even in the best-performing state in terms of educational attainment – Central Equatoria – two-thirds of the active population have not completed primary education;
The small proportion of workers with education face a smaller risk of unemployment and are much more likely to secure formal, salaried employment than the uneducated. In terms of employment status, even a small amount of education appears to make a difference: salaried employment is 22 percentage points higher for those with primary education than for those with no education.
In its ‘Thematic analysis: promoting youth employment’ 2012 in South Sudan, the AfDB points out that among the factors contributing to youth unemployment, skills mismatches with available jobs are viewed as particularly serious.
Obviously, youth applicants lack experience or proper qualifications as most have attended private education institutions in major cities that lack credible, internationally renowned accreditation. Very often, qualifications are also not in line with the economic priorities of the government, such as skills for the energy and construction sectors.
This situation underscores the need to develop a human resource development strategy delineating the areas of priority for both the public and private sectors.
In the absence of coherent government policies and a legal and regulatory labour framework, the few foreign- owned private enterprises tend to bring skilled workers from their countries of origin, typically Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia and Eritrea. Only a handful of South Sudanese are hired, usually as drivers, waiters, loaders, sweepers or cashiers. According to the AfDB, many employers both national and foreign complain that the youth attitude to work is very poor. From the employers’ point of view, local youth seek much higher wages than are merited by the level of productivity they are able to achieve. Furthermore, many job seekers see themselves as the equals of the better-organized, more experienced and better-paid youth from neighbouring countries (AfDB, 2012a, pp. 9–10).
Cultural perceptions of what constitute decent jobs (for instance, the poor perception of manual work by pastoralist communities) may influence the employment choices of young people. Many young South Sudanese, who were taught in Arabic when South Sudan was part of the Sudan, lack proficiency in the English language, and this is also a challenge to their employment prospects with international firms in the country.
1.3 Demand for skills from the productive sector and rural development
Government policy recognizes the importance of the private sector in developing the country. One of the government’s main objectives, as stated in the South Sudan Development Plan 2011–2013 (Government of South Sudan, 2011) is to diversify the economy and double the amount of non-oil revenue by creating a more conducive business environment for the private sector.
Given the stage of development of the country, the government plans focus on developing the infrastructure for transport, ICT and telecommunications, agriculture and energy. In addition to the skills required to improve this infrastructure, there are targets to diversify the economy.
However, the current relatively narrow industrial base means that the demand for highly skilled workers and technicians is modest. This gives South Sudan an opportunity to work gradually on boosting the quality of TVET as the demand for high skills grows.
With around 84 per cent of the population living in rural areas, rural development is a vitally important policy area.
Both farming and non-farming activities will remain crucial for economic diversification in rural communities. The strengthening of TVET for rural development should therefore be a priority for policy-makers.
1.4 Conclusion
The socio-economic and demographic factors and labour force characteristics presented above have a direct impact on education and training policies. South Sudan is facing a dramatic expansion of its labour force, with large cohorts of youth joining the labour market. Whether this sizeable young labour force will be a blessing or a burden will depend to a large extent on the capacity of the economy to create decent work, and at the capacity of decision- makers to provide opportunities to youth and adults to develop skills that will be rewarded in the labour market and that will support further learning.
One fundamental principle is the need to ensure that the TVET system is closely linked to the national economic development agenda and phases. It is also important to consider whether sufficient attention is being paid to those who lack basic skills and live in rural areas. There are policy decisions and choices to be made. To achieve this, different components of public policies should be brought together in an integrated manner, including agriculture and energy development, education and training, employment and social protection.
2. The Characteristics of the TVET System
2.1 The education system
In South Sudan, TVET is provided in formal, non-formal and informal settings, and it aims to equip youth and adults with the qualifications needed to meet the economic and social development challenges of the country. The characteristics of the TVET subsector can be discussed in the context of the wider formal education system (see Figure 4).
Figure 4: The Formal Education System of South Sudan
University/College
education In-service teacher
training Pre-service teacher training
Vocational/technical education and training
(includes technical secondary education) Secondary school
Senior 1 (S1) to Senior 4 (S4)
Primary school Primary 1 (P1) to Primary 8 (P8)
Pre-primary school Beginner to Graduate Source: MoEST (2014).
The education sector has seen a substantial growth over the past decade or so. Between 2000 and 2009, primary school enrolments increased from around 0.3 million to around 1.4 million. Over the same period, the primary school gross enrolment rate rose from 21 per cent in 2000 to 72 per cent in 2009. Over aged students, repetition and dropping-out are widespread in primary education. Only around 26 per cent of the students complete grade 6 of the primary education cycle.
Official data for secondary education are less complete, but enrolments at this level have at least doubled since 2005 (World Bank, 2012, pp. 1–3). Dropout rates at the secondary school level also appear to be very high.
According to the 2013 educational management information system (EMIS) data, only 2,563 students reached the final (fourth) year of the secondary school programme out of an intake of 19,077 in the first year. The low capacity at the secondary school level coupled with the high dropout rates underscore the need to expand or operationalize the existing facilities for TVET in order to address, at least partially, the skills needs of the large numbers of students who drop out of the general education system.
