Cooperation System in Northeast Asia: Current Status and Outlook
1) Historical background of inter-city linkages in Northeast Asia
Chapter 3• Establishing Logistics and Transportation Linkages 33 C · H · A · P · T · E · R
Source: Francois Gipouloux (1998). "Integration ou desintegration? Les effets spatiaux de l'investissement direct etranger en Chine." Perspectives Chioises, No. 46.
Note: Reproduced with permission from the author and the publisher.
<Figure 2- 1> Key Continental and Maritime Cities in a Mediterranean Sea of East Asia
Source: Francois Gipouloux (1996). "Les poussees centrifuges du capitalisme urbain."
Revue Tiers Monde, 37(147), p.570.
Note: Reproduced with permission from the author and the publisher.
<Figure 2- 2> East Asian Maritime Zone in a Mediterranean Sea of East Asia
Chapter 3• Establishing Logistics and Transportation Linkages 35 Source: Nakajima Gakusho (2004). "South Kyushu during the Age of Commerce: a node of Northeast Asian maritime trade." Workshop on the Northeast Asia Maritime Perspective: A Dialogue with Southeast Asia (Okinawa), Oct. 2004.
Note: Reproduced with permission from the author and the publisher.
<Figure 2- 3> Formation of the Exchange Network in the “Commercial Age”
of the 16th Century
Source: Kazuko Furuta (古田和子) (1992). “海ネットワークのなかの神戶 ㅡ 海 外綿製品運ぶ中國商人.” 近代日本硏究會編 『年報․近代日本硏究 14』(東京:
山川出版社).
Note: Reproduced with permission from the author and the publisher.
<Figure 2- 4> Formation of China-Japan-Korea Maritime Zones at the End of the 19th Century
From the viewpoint of Continental Asia, near-sea cities of China and other port cities of East Asia had played peripheral roles. From the Maritime Asia perspective, however, the port cities had spearheaded the growth and economic exchange activities in East Asia.
Some experts see the large area spanning Vladivostok, Russia and Bali, Indonesia as a future venue for the further development of East Asia (Shinyasu, 1999).
Hamashita (1990) divides the historical waters of East Asia into Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and South China Sea. He believes these waters will be the ideal site for the unlimited growth of East Asia once they are connected.
Source: Hamashita Takeshi (1990). China-centered World Order in Modern Times.
Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press.
Note: Reproduced with permission from the author and the publisher.
<Figure 2- 5> Historical Maritime Zones in East Asia
Chapter 3• Establishing Logistics and Transportation Linkages 37
Coastal cities had spearheaded the market and societal opening in the late 19th century. They also became the center of China’s market and societal opening in the 1980s.
As a result, changes occurred in the economic and geographical spatial structures of East Asia.
A supranational space is forming along the East Asian waters.
Different areas and zones cluster around each other based on their geographical, historical, and cultural proximity.
The abovementioned revival of Maritime Asia has set the spatial basis for new regionalism. Such new regionalism transcends the territory-based paradigm. It is emerging in keeping with the multi-polar order and globalization trend. Specifically, this new regionalism breaks away from the bi-polar system during the Cold War.
When the continental order dominated East Asia, history was marred with conflicts and confrontations. Under the dominance of the maritime order, however, harmony and coexistence prevailed.
In this regard, this study focuses on the analysis of maritime space in the Pan Yellow Sea Zone. This area is the subject of an economic exchange paradigm that renders national boundaries meaningless.
The importance of port cities in maritime space is being recognized. Thus, linkages between cities are being reinforced.
The significance of maritime space as a substantive economic zone is also growing.
(2) History of inter-city linkages and cooperation in Northeast Asia A. Background of inter-city cooperation
Economic cooperation between different cities and regions and between different countries has been pursued in Northeast Asia since the 1990s.
Inter-city cooperation is generally led by the private sector. In other words, it is driven by the market force. Economic compatibility and geographical and cultural proximity wield strong influence.
Inter-city cooperation offers the cities involved an opportunity for economic diversification. It also helps them share their experience and problem-solving know-how on issues of common interest.
Cross-border cooperation at the regional level (incl. cities) is realized according to the degree of a country’s openness. Another consideration is the relationship between the central and local governments.
China, Japan, and Korea lag behind Western countries in terms of both the degree of openness and local autonomy.
Japan leads in the degree of openness and local autonomy, followed by Korea and China.
B. History of inter-city cooperation in Northeast Asia
Inter-city exchange in Northeast Asia apparently occurs through means other than the initiation of the central governments on the surface (Moon, Jeong-in, 2005).
A total of 127 local governments of China have forged sisterhood relationships with 16 metropolitan bodies and 101 cities, districts, and counties of Korea. Such move aims at promoting exchange and cooperation between them.
A total of 81 local governments of Japan have forged sisterhood relationships with 16 metropolitan bodies and 54 cities, districts, and counties of Korea. The 15 sister-city and alliance proposals between the local governments of Japan and Korea in 1975 ballooned to 130 in 2004.
At least 327 local governments of China have forged sisterhood relationships with 48 prefectures of Japan as of 2004.
Inter-city cooperation in Northeast Asia began with the Pan East Sea Zone Campaign. This originated in Nigata in the 1960s.
Non-metropolitan cities lagged behind after Japan recorded remarkable growth. Thus, they sought to overcome the challenge of regional isolation through interaction with other cities.
Chapter 3• Establishing Logistics and Transportation Linkages 39
A multilateral body for inter-city cooperation beyond bilateral sister-city relationships was not established until 1994 or later than the Pan Yellow Sea Zone. Nonetheless, it was the first attempt to conceptualize inter-city cooperation in modern Northeast Asian history.
A substantive multilateral inter-city cooperation system in Northeast Asia originated with the 6-City Conference on the Pan Yellow Sea Zone in 1991.
The Pan Yellow Sea Zone is geographically located at the center of inter-city interaction of Northeast Asia. Its urbanization and city networks are undergoing dramatic expansion amid China’s explosive economic growth.
The Pan Yellow Sea Zone is home to approximately 280 million people (4.7% of the world’s population). This accounts for approximately 4% of the world’s total GDP and trade.
Held since 1991, the 6-City Conference on the Pan Yellow Sea Zone was developed into the East Asian City Conference. By 2000, it included 10 cities. Still, its influence is quite negligible. This is because few action programs for promoting inter-city linkages in Northeast Asia are in place.
Participating cities: China (Dalian · Tianjin · Yantai · Qingdao), Korea (Incheon · Busan · Ulsan), Japan (Fukuoka · Kitakyushu
· Shimonoseki)
Efforts were made to bring together cities in the Pan East Sea Zone led by Nigata. As a result, the Governors’ Meeting for Growth in the Pan East Sea Zone was established led by Gangweon-do. This came about after the implementation of the Tumen River Development Plan in 1994.
During this meeting, 10 port cities of China, Japan, Korea, and Russia participate in the Hub City Conference on the Pan East Sea Zone.
Participating cities: Japan (Saga, Iminato, Tsuruga, Yonago), Russia (Nakhodka, Vladivostok), China (Hunchun, Yanji, Tumen), Korea (Sokcho, Donghae)
Another inter-region network is the Japan-Korea Strait Governors’
Conference. Launched in 1992, it includes local governments from the Kyushu area of Japan and South Sea area of Korea (Cheol-Ho Lee, 2007).
Participating local governments: 1 Korean city and 3 provinces along the South Sea coast (Busan Metropolitan City,
Gyeongsangnam-do, Jeollanam-do, Jeju-do), 3 Japanese prefectures in the Kyushu area (Fukuoka, Nagasaki, Saga) It aims at developing a new growth hub. Specifically, the
network will take advantage of the platform-like function with easy access to two maritime zones (Yellow Sea/East Sea) and two key development axes (Seoul-Busan/Kyushu-Tokyo).
Actually, both physical and human exchanges are in progress.
They were commenced after the regular operation of the Busan-Fukuoka/Shimonoseki Ferry and joint cargo train operation in March 2007. The parties involved are currently discussing the connection of various logistics and
transportation infrastructures. The basis for such connection is their geographical proximity.
The Organization for East Asian Economic Development (OEAED) drove the recent acceleration of development of inter-city linkages in Northeast Asia. OEAED inherited the East Asian City Conference in 2004; it was based on the existing industry council and sports/youth exchange programs.
OEAED pursues the specific goal of creating the Pan Yellow Sea Economic Zone. It establishes 4 divisions specializing in manufacturing, environment, logistics, and tourism. OEAED also enhances inter-region linkages. Specifically, it promotes industry-academe cooperation, technology transfer, and new business development headed by the Secretariat City designated for each division.
A total of 130 officials from related industries including the director-generals of the 10 cities’ port bureaus attended the 1st Logistics Division Initiation Meeting in July 2005. The purpose of such meeting was to form a “port partnership.”
This laid down the groundwork for OEAED to develop into an inter-city alliance system.
Chapter 3• Establishing Logistics and Transportation Linkages 41
The detailed action plan includes the following: database development of logistics projects and port information; mutual preferential treatment system for member cities; network development for logistics information systems, and; expansion and reinforcement of inter-business network linkages.
The 6-City Industry Council of East Asia consists of the chambers of commerce of 6 cities (Kitakyushu, Shimonoseki, Dalian, Qingdao, Incheon, Busan) in the Pan Yellow Sea Zone.
It consists of regional research bodies from Kyushu, Incheon, Busan, and Ulsan. Together, they form the three pillars of the local government-market-academe linkage of the region along with OEAED.
One of Japan’s hub cities for inter-city exchange in Northeast Asia is Yonago. The city forged an alliance with Baoding in Hebei, China in October 1991. It also became a sister city of Sokcho and Goseong in Gangweon-do, Korea in October 1995 and October 1996, respectively (Cheol-Ho Lee, 2007).
The Hub City Conference is held on the Pan East Sea Zone, which focuses on tourist and economic exchanges. Every year since 1994, Yonago has taken turns hosting the conference with Sakaiminato of Tottori, Japan, Sokcho and Donghae of Gangwon-do, Korea, Hunchun, Yanji, and Tumen of Jilin, China, and Nakhodka and Vladivostok of Primorsky, Russia.
Similarly, Japan’s Tottori Prefecture has taken turns with Gangwon-do, Korea, Hunchun, Yanji, and Tumen of Jilin, China, Primorsky, Russia, and Inner Mongolia in hosting the International Cooperation Summit of Local Governments in the Pan East Sea Zone.
Most local governments of Japan have recently planned and implemented an efficient, effective, and mutually preferential international exchange strategy.
They consider each project’s significance and objective.
The financial reform of Japan‘s central government has resulted in fewer grants and smaller subsidy provided to local governments. For their part, local governments are suffering from the staggered growth of tax income due to the economic slowdown.
BESETO (Beijing-Seoul-Tokyo) connects the capital cities of China, Japan, and Korea. In other words, it is the link between the primary cities of the three countries. BESETO is also the real driving force of the Northeast Asian economy. Thus, it should be given keen consideration aside from localized cross-border linkages.
2) Economic exchange and inter-city linkages in the Pan Yellow Sea