Deregulations of University Establishment and Shrinking of VE (1995-2008)

Since the university establishment became easier in 1995 as a part of the May 31

Education Reform Plan, the number of universities and the number of university students increased rapidly. As a result, vocational education in Korea had shrunk until the inauguration of the Lee Myung-bak administration in 2008. The number of universities increased from 131 in 1995 to 161 in 2000, an increase of 30 in five years, and then increased to 188 in 2013. The number of university students increased from 1,187,000 in 1995 to 1,665,000 in 2000, an increase of nearly half a million, and then continued to increase to 2,120,000 in 2013 (see [Figure 3-5]). The university entrance rate rose from 51.4% in 1995 to 68.0% in 2000, peaked at 83.8% in 2008, and then started to fall.

[Figure 3-5] Students in Higher Education Institutions (1970-2013)

(Unit: person)

Setting educational reform as a national priority, the Kim Young-sam administration (1993-1997) formed the Education Reform Commission to be directly responsible to the President and implemented education reform plans. The Education Reform Commission announced four reform plans from 1995 to 1997.

Foreseeing drastic changes to civilization characterized by informatization and globalization at the dawn of the 21st century, the Kim Young-sam administration thought that transition

from a closed education system to an open education system was inevitable and suggested a total of 48 agenda.

In order to lay the foundations for a society of open and lifelong education, the Kim administration’s plan included the introduction of the academic credit bank system, the introduction of the part-time student registration system, meeting the various demands of education consumers, the expansion of opportunities for university transfer and entrance, and the introduction of the minimum academic credit system for major recognition.

Agenda were also suggested to promote the diversification and specialization of universities, to implement school communities for the autonomous operation of primary and secondary education, and policies and systems concerning curricula designed to nurture character and creativity. Policies were also suggested concerning the reformation of the university entrance system, primary and secondary education that respects the diversity of learners, the implementation of an evaluation and support system for education providers, and the development of distinguished and capable teachers. In particular, a university diversification and specialization plan was suggested in which universities would autonomously design and run models consisting of various programs suitable for developing talented people with a wide range of skills and qualities.

Universities were categorized into four types: undergraduate-centered vocation-oriented education, graduate-centered vocation-oriented education, undergraduate- centered academic-oriented education, and graduate-centered academic-oriented education.

Major national projects concerning institutes of tertiary education included the university structural reform project, the Brain Korea 21 project, and the New University for Regional Innovation (NURI) project. The university structural reform project (2005-2009) was enforced with the ultimate purpose of strengthening the competitiveness of university education by reforming the system through student quota reduction, university integration, and the reformation of the governance structure of national

universities, and, at the same time, by encouraging individual universities to reform their own internal structures. The Brain Korea 21 project aimed to develop global-standard graduate schools with unique knowledge-creation abilities in the fields directly associated with national competitiveness and to establish leading regional universities to produce excellent manpower to meet the demands of regional industries through industry-academic cooperation and the greater substantiality of undergraduate courses. The NURI project (2004-2008) was undertaken by the Roh Moo-hyun administration for the purpose of improving educational environments and strengthening the competence of regional universities, and for the purpose of producing regional talent.

The May 31 Reformation Measures included regulations concerning university establishment which were directly related to VE. Principle of university establishment based on set-out requirements, which was one of the nine education reform plans announced by the Education Reform Commission on May 31, 1995, allowed universities of various purposes and characteristics to be established freely as long as they met certain university establishment and operation criteria and suggested requirements for facilities, faculties, and basic properties for profit, among others. When a proposed university satisfied these requirements and its establishing body applied for establishment approval, the Minister of Education could approve the establishment of the university following a review by the University Establishment Review Board.

With easing the university establishment, the number of universities and the number of university students increased significantly from the late 1990s to the early 2000s.

New universities continued to be established while there was no formal mechanism to remove the existing universities, which were non-profit organizations. As a result, there were too many universities in the country. University restructuring and job shortages for university graduates became important policy issues from the mid-2000s.

The Kim Young-sam administration implemented a tertiary education reformation policy which aimed to create education demander-oriented university education, to improve the efficiency of university education through autonomy and diversity, and to reshape university education into an open education system. The goal of vocational education was to implement a society of demander-oriented lifelong education as suggested in the May 31 Education Reform Plan of 1995. The basic direction of high school vocational education was to diversify vocational education at the high school level, such as by stimulating the transition of existing vocational high schools to specialized high schools, integrating the operation of general high school and vocational high school curricula, and integrating the operation of junior college and open university curricula with high school curricula. A wide variety of education paths became available, including entering a junior college after high school graduation, entering a general four-year university after graduating from a junior college or an open university, and entering Korea National Open University while working after graduating from a junior college.

The Kim Young-sam administration’s vocational education policy was carried out as a follow-up measure to the vocational high school expansion policy (vocational high school to academic high school ratio of 5:5) and the 2+1 vocational high school system, which were implemented in the early 1990s but failed to achieve the intended goals, and for the purpose of meeting parents’ demands for university education (see <Table 3-10>). Subsequently, the Kim Young-sam administration’s secondary vocational education policy provided the basis for the vocational education policy of the Kim Dae-jung administration and the Roh Moo-hyun administration.

By shifting the central axis of vocational education from vocational high schools to junior colleges, the Kim Young-sam administration engendered a quantitative take-off for junior colleges. As vocational education took on a major role in tertiary education, the

competitiveness of junior college education was strengthened, and financial support for junior colleges was expanded.

<Table 3-10> Vocational Education Policy of Kim Young-sam Administration Basic

direction Policy issues Detailed plans

High

Promoting transition of existing vocational high schools to specialized high schools

Relaxing establishment requirements for specialized high schools

Integrated operation of high school curricula

Integrated operation of general and vocational high school curricula

Greater opportunity for continued education

Integrated operation with curricula of junior colleges, open universities, etc.

Granting early admission benefits to students of integrated curricula

Improving field adaptability of curricula

Improving field practice operation methods

Strengthening participation of regional vocational education training council in design and operation of curricula

Securing high-quality teachers

Training practical course teachers and diversifying recruitment paths

Utilizing industrial field manpower as expert teachers Dispatching vocational high school teachers to industrial fields for greater expertise

Modernization of vocational high school facilities and equipment

Simplifying facility and equipment requirements of vocational high schools for school specialization and flexibility in operation

Improving management indicators for modernizing vocational high school facilities and equipment and improving

management indicators for shared utilization

Supporting distance education through high-tech multimedia Financial support for

vocational high schools and students

Priority allocation of education budget in modernization, for example, of vocational high school facilities

Priority allocation of publicly funded scholarships to vocational high school students

<Continued>

Source: <Table I-1> and <Table I-5> in Chun (2014)

In order to meet the demands for various qualifications in the industrializing society, the Kim Young-sam administration enacted the Framework Act on Qualifications and designated the Ministry of Education as mainly responsible in April 1997. This was to make the management and operation of the qualifications system more systematic and efficient, to enhance the credibility of the qualifications system, to promote the public vocational skills development, and to promote the improvement of socioeconomic status by stipulating the basic provisions of the qualifications system, such as distinguishing

Basic

direction Policy issues Detailed plans

Tertiary the implementation of a society of

consumer-oriented open lifelong education: May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995)

Building the foundation for a society of open education and lifelong education

Diversification and specialization of universities

Building school communities for autonomous operation of primary and secondary education

Curricula for fostering character and creativity

University entrance system design to relieve difficulties Education operation that respects the individuality of learners Implementing an evaluation and support system for education providers

Producing distinguished and capable teachers

Shifting the central axis of vocational education

Diversification of high school-level vocational education Promoting vocational education in junior colleges, open universities, and polytechnics

Introduction of new universities

Introduction of the vocational degree system

Building the foundation for lifelong vocational education Reformation of the qualifications system

Implementing administrative/financial support systems for vocational education training

Developing central institutes of vocational education at the tertiary education level:

Education Reform Commission (1996, directly responsible to the President)

High school+junior college (2+2)

Junior college+open/general university (2+2) Junior college+Korea National Open University Establishing of small, specialized junior colleges New universities: industrial undergraduate course (2+2), undergraduate course (2+2)

national qualifications and private qualifications and pluralizing the management bodies of the qualifications system.

The Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training (KRIVET) was established as a joint affiliated organization of the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Labor with responsibility for researching policies concerning vocational education and training and the qualifications system, program development and distribution, and collection of information and data, among others. The establishment of KRIVET was one attempt to manage vocational education and vocational training in an integrated manner in a system where vocational education and vocational training were administered by different government ministries. However, as implied by the fact that the removal of KRIVET was considered as soon as the Kim Dae-jung administration was inaugurated, the dual system where vocational training was administered by the Ministry of (Employment and) Labor and vocational education was administered by the Ministry of Education remained in force.

Suggesting a policy goal to implement a vocational education system that accommodates the requirements of the rapidly changing industrial society, the knowledge-based society, and the society of lifelong education in the 21st century, the Kim Dae-jung administration (1998-2002) enforced various measures to foster vocational high schools and vocational education (see <Table 3-11>).

The administration carried out various measures to strengthen the competitiveness of vocational education such as by reducing the number of students per class in vocational high schools, developing regional joint practice labs, increasing the practice equipment possession rate, strengthening the autonomy of curricula and budget execution, and supporting the training of teachers for improved expertise and practicality. However, the

high school vocational education policy which allowed 3% of the university entrance quota to be used as special admission for students who studied in the same fields, newly established vocational subjects in the College Scholastic Ability Test, and so on. The focus was on transitioning secondary vocational education into a system where students could explore both academic and vocational paths at the same time.

The goal of the Kim Dae-jung administration’s tertiary education-level vocational policy was to develop junior colleges as central institutes of education that would produce professional technical manpower with vocational skills. In 1998, the purpose of junior college education was changed from the development of medium-skilled workers to the development of professional workers, and intensive study programs were installed in junior colleges.

The link between junior colleges and vocational high schools was strengthened through the introduction of the 2+2 system, which linked vocational high schools and junior colleges together and the 2+2+2 system which linked vocational high schools, junior colleges, and general universities together. Diversification of the undergraduate operation system was also sought through the introduction of the academic credit bank system, intensive study programs, and the multi-semester system, among others. From 2001, it became possible for junior colleges to extend course lengths to three years within the quota upon approval from the Minister of Education. Awareness of the importance and necessity of a demander-oriented education system increased gradually among universities, and specialization was carried out for all institutes of tertiary education, including junior colleges, by linking evaluation and financial support together.

<Table 3-11> Tertiary Vocational Education Policy of Kim Dae-jung administration

Policy Development direction

for junior colleges Key content

The five-year

Vocational high school+Junior college (2+2) Vocational high school+Junior college+General university (2+2+2)

Merger between universities and different departments within the same university and shared use of their faculties

Reformation of human and physical structures for consumer-oriented curricula

Operation of the credit bank system, multi-semester system, and intensive study programs

Operation of technical curricula (general high schools), integrated curricula (vocational high schools), and vocational education curricula (industries) The Ministry of for the development of professional technical manpwer with vocational skills

Restructuring through financial support evaluation Suppressing junior colleges from reorganizing as four-year universities

Autonomous operation of integrated curricula Flexible operation of school years (three-year system) Multi-semester system and practice semester system Source: <Table I-6> in Chun (2014)

As the number of students entering vocational high schools (current specialized high schools) decreased and the opportunity for university entrance increased, the function of continuing education became important when the era of globalization, characterized by changes in the industrial structure and the WTO, dawned in the mid-1990s. As a result, the concept of lifelong vocational education was emphasized in the high school-level vocational education policy of the Kim Dae-jung administration. Therefore, the nation’s high school-level vocational education became focused on the improved acquisition of basic vocational skills and expanding opportunities for continuing education. On this background, the Education Reform Plan for Establishment of New Education System (II), which was announced by the Education Reform Commission in 1996, subsequently became the framework of the high school vocational education policy for the Kim

Subsequently, the Vocational Education and Training Promotion Act, which was jointly enacted by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Labor (the current Ministry of Employment and Labor), contributed to the establishment of a knowledge-based society and advancement of the industrial manpower structure. As a result, all the government ministries involved in manpower development participated in the establishment of the First Basic Plan for Vocational Education and Training in December 1999.

However, the function of high school-level vocational education weakened during this process, and difficulties in recruiting students for vocational education were reported. As a result, a series of action plans for improving the substantiality of vocational education in vocational high schools (current specialized high schools) were established from the early 2000s (see <Table 3-12>).

According to these action plans, vocational high school students were given greater opportunities to enter university. Vocational high school graduates seeking university entrance could be admitted to universities in the same study fields and could make up 3% of the university entrance quota in addition to the existing quota starting from the academic year 2004. The vocational discipline was also established (the current career exploration discipline) and the technical subjects of vocational high schools were included in the College Scholastic Ability Test. Tuition support and conducive vocational education conditions were also provided in order to secure high-quality students. The Korea Chamber of Commerce and Industry was also designated as an organization solely responsible for the link between schools and industry, and finance and tax incentives were offered to enterprises that participated in field practice. Efforts were made to emphasize the industrial context of the vocational education system by granting those students who successfully completed the vocational high school curricula with national technical qualifications (craftsmen) without taking the relevant national tests for a limit of 1 subject per person.

These policy agenda were focused on reforming the previous education system, which centered on employment in industry after vocational education in high schools, and sought to facilitate both employment and university entrance at the same time after graduation from vocational high schools (current specialized high schools).

When the Ministry of Education was reformed as the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, basic plans for human resources development were established at the national level (the first basic plan for national human resources development was established in 2001). As a result, the high school-level vocational education policy was carried out as part of the national human resources development plan. In particular, high school-level vocational education was named as a key element in lifelong vocational skills development.

<Table 3-12> Secondary Vocational Education Policy of Kim Dae-jung administration Policy direction Policy content Enforced policy Responsible ministry

Implementation of a vocational education system that meets the expectations of the

Vocational high school system reformation as a part of the five-year education development plan (proposed in 1999)

Ministry of Education

The First Basic Plan for Vocational Education and Training (1999)

Ministry of Education, and Ministry of Labor Vocational high school development

plan (2000) Ministry of Education

Action plan for vocational education development (2001) innovation for lifelong education as part of the basic plan for national human resources development (2001)

Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development

The objectives of tertiary education level vocational education in the Roh Moo-hyun administration (2003-2007) were to reform the structure of junior colleges and to strengthen the role of junior colleges as centers of lifelong vocational education (see

<Table 3-13>). Judging that the rapid decrease in the number of students entering tertiary education from the beginning of the 21st century would have the strongest impact on junior colleges, the Roh Moo-hyun administration sought to develop countermeasures, such as encouraging the autonomous structural reform of junior colleges. The full-time faculty ratio of junior colleges was to be raised to 50% by 2009.

Junior colleges could autonomously establish three-year courses within the set quota from 2007 and could set up and run intensive study programs for bachelor’s degrees from 2008. Various forms of integration between colleges were encouraged, and the entrance quota was to be reduced by 60% for any junior college that reformed as a four-year university. The information disclosure system which showed the education conditions and operational status of colleges was also introduced. The role of junior colleges was strengthened as regional centers of lifelong vocational education and the

Junior colleges could autonomously establish three-year courses within the set quota from 2007 and could set up and run intensive study programs for bachelor’s degrees from 2008. Various forms of integration between colleges were encouraged, and the entrance quota was to be reduced by 60% for any junior college that reformed as a four-year university. The information disclosure system which showed the education conditions and operational status of colleges was also introduced. The role of junior colleges was strengthened as regional centers of lifelong vocational education and the