Therefore, there is a need to develop faster and more efficient lasers used for long-distance data communication. Through this study, we have designed a structure that reduces optical loss and increases the transition efficiency for use in high-power lasers.
Motivation
As can be seen in (b) and (c), the epitaxial surface has a motionless wave pattern created during epitaxial growth. Looking at Fig.5.8 the results for the three cavities, it can be seen that the optical effect of the 600um cavity is the highest.
![Figure 1.2: IBM’s first on-package silicon photonic chips [13].](https://thumb-ap.123doks.com/thumbv2/123dokinfo/10489258.0/12.892.205.703.509.784/figure-ibm-first-on-package-silicon-photonic-chips.webp)
Si photonics
Laser for silicon photonics
Direct band gap means that the wave vector of the highest point in the valence band and the lowest point in the conduction band is the same; that is, they share the same crystal momentum. As can be seen from the right side of fig. 1.5, Si is a material with a different indirect band gap, that is, the highest point of the conduction band and the lowest point of the wave vector in the valence band.
Recent progress of hybrid in-plane lasers
The morphology of the KTH epitaxy is quite curved and the surface is quite rough. The parts overlapping the two regions of the p(n)-metal pad and the n(p)-ohmic metal were separated using Photo-BCB (cyclotene 4022-35).
Thesis contribution and outline
Thesis contribution
To achieve our goal, we need to increase the efficiency of the transition from III-V to Si waveguide. In the case of an in-plane laser, the efficiency is reduced if the distance between the active Si and III-V layers is large.
Thesis organization
Chapter 5, Conclusion, will summarize the main results of this paper and suggest improvements, future progress or corrections based on the results of the fabricated device. In this chapter, we will examine the basic theories of heterogeneous integrated laser operation, simulations of the structures of III-V epitaxy and Si waveguides that increase the efficiency proposed above, and how much expectations can be obtained from the fabricated devices.
General structure of the hybrid III-V/Si laser
First, in case of photon emission, photons with energy corresponding to Ec-Ev enter and lift electrons in the valence band to the conduction band. After that, when another photon enters, it stimulates the free carrier in the conduction band to recombine the carrier through the downward transition.
Epitaxy design
Optimization of thickness of n contact layer
Hybrid laser has a hybrid (amplification) section with III-V and Si waveguide to obtain optical amplification and a waveguide section with only Si waveguide for output. Si waveguide is tapered from 2um to 0.6um over 50um, as will be explained later. The green graph is the extent to which the optical mode overlaps with the active layer, and the blue graph is the extent to overlap the Si waveguide.
The transition rates from III-V epitaxy to Si waveguide through the conical structure are 76%, respectively.
Calculate the optical loss related to p-side layer
When the absorption coefficient is calculated using equation 2.1, 460 cm-1 is obtained for InP and 10168 cm-1 for InGaAs. The meaning of this value is that the optical mode overlapping with InGaAs acts as a loss and it is disadvantageous for a high power laser because it cannot be achieved as a gain. Although there is some difference, the 1um cladding layer is chosen because it does not significantly affect the function of the laser itself.
If you look at the photoluminescence (PL) data you received from the manufacturer, you can see that there is no significant difference at 1293 nm.
Taper structure design
Looking at the graph result, we see that the ripple has disappeared. However, for high transverse confinement in the gain section, the width of Si in the gain section must be wide. Figure 2.11 is the result of a simulation of a structure in which the waveguide is narrowed from 2 µm to 0.6 µm.
Looking at the following results, it can be seen that the efficiency is higher than Fig.2.10.
Thermal design
In this case, the heat generated is easily dissipated downwards because it is in direct contact with Si, which has high thermal conductivity. Due to the low thermal conductivity of BCB, heat generated in the active region cannot be transferred to Si. Therefore, the heat cannot escape, so the internal temperature is very high, and the thermal resistance value is also high.
Compared with BCB, it has higher thermal conductivity, so the heat generated from QW is transferred to Si and the heat dissipation efficiency is good.
Mirror design
Summary
Introduction
In fact, Al2O3 bonding can be viewed from the perspective of direct wafer bonding, but in this article it is classified as an adhesive layer from the perspective of an adhesion layer.
Direct wafer bonding
- Bonding mechanism
- Plasma-assisted direct wafer bonding
- Bonding procedure and surface roughness issue
- Result of direct wafer bonding
3.1, It can be observed that numerous voids were formed on the surface due to by-product gas and bonding was not performed properly. Here's the idea: The purpose of RCA-1 cleaning is to remove organic matter and particles from the surface. Therefore, it is necessary to do the best to remove the removable particles on the surface.
PIN epitaxy has significantly better surface morphology and fewer particles that cannot be removed and the surface is smoother.
Adhesive wafer bonding
Properties of BCB polymer
The advantages of BCB as an adhesive polymer are: low curing temperature, low dielectric constant, excellent chemical resistance, etc. The BCB polymer used for bonding is a non-photosensitive polymer (3022-35) purchased from DOW Chemical Company. The hardening rate of BCB and its phase depends on time and temperature as shown in Fig.
BCB bonding procedure and result
The KTH epitaxy shown in Fig.3.4(a) has poor surface roughness and contains many immobile particles. However, even if the surface roughness is not good due to the characteristics of the BCB joint, the overall quality of the joint is good as shown in Fig.3.8(a). Fig.3.8(b) and Fig.3.8(c) are the edge and the central part of the sample taking the optical microscope (OM) respectively.
fig. (b) and (c) are the edge and center of epitaxial images of KTH with OM.
Similar to BCB bond, it can be seen that bond strength is also excellent as most of the area remains. Of course, there is no polymer that can compensate for surface roughness, so it is still sensitive to roughness issues, but there is no need to choose as rigorously as direct wafer bonding. The remaining InP substrate as called ridge in Fig.3.10(a) appears due to the difference in etching rate depending on the InP substrate [36, 37].
Only that part can be removed by immersing it in hydrochloric acid or removing it with tweezers to do as shown in Fig.3.10(b).
Summary
It is applied in a liquid state to level the surface and fill any voids. It is widely used because it is not sensitive to surface morphology, filling voids on the surface, and has strong adhesive power and ease of use. And although many classify Al2O3 bonding as direct wafer bonding, due to the presence of an intermediate layer, it is classified as adhesive bonding.
In addition, the thermal conductivity is much better than that of BCB, so it is excellent in terms of heat dissipation.
Introduction
CMOS compatibility
Process flow
Since the thickness of the substrate is 600um, it will be stopped by the InGaAs etch stop layer after about 75 minutes. This is followed by a rapid thermal annealing (RTA) process for the metal alloy. Since the material of the P contact layer is InGaAs, Ti/Pt/Au has been deposited, which can make ohmic contact with the material.
An important point in this part is that the metal deposited with the contact pad does not break and goes well along the slope of the photo BCB.
Characterization
Measurement set-up
Measurement results
When the temperature rises, the electron-hole pairs that need to recombine in the QW gain energy through heat and leave the QW. The free carriers can then no longer recombine and are attracted to the contact by the potential difference. However, it can be confirmed that it is not coherence light because the specular pattern normally seen with laser is not visible.
As a result, it was judged that the lasering was not performed according to the conclusion from the I-L curve.
Discussion
Comparison of I-V curve
Through the resistance calculated above, the heat power generated by Joule heating can be calculated. 𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅 (5.2) The initial heat power is calculated by subtracting the optical power from the electrical power. Equation (5.2) is related to the electrical power, but the optical power of this sample is about several tens of uW, so it can be ignored.
From this result obtained in Table 5.3 it can therefore be deduced that heat is one of the reasons not to laser.
Comparison of I-L curve
Impact of dislocation
It can be confirmed that a significant amount of dislocation acts as a non-radiative center, and as a result, lasing does not occur. In the next section we will discuss the solutions to the problems presented above, the dislocation as a non-radiative center and the heat generated by the resistance.
Solution
If you increase it to 100 nm, the second effect can also be reduced to more than 1/5. Therefore, if the InP as the buffer layer, which is the same material as the substrate, is increased by 1~2um to compensate for the lattice mismatch, we can be sure that the dislocation will occur less. However, the degree of dislocation is also different depending on the material to be doped.
Therefore, optimizing the p-contact layer using a widely used material is one way to reduce the dislocation.
Summary
As a solution to the first problem, it is proposed to reduce the current path for the electrons and thickly load the ohmic contact metal.
Summary
Further work
Sinharoy et al., "IBM POWER8 processor core microarchitecture," IBM Journal of Research and Development, vol. Fan, “Band offsets at the InAlGaAs/InAlAs (001) heterostructure lattice corresponding to an InP substrate,” Journal of Applied Physics, vol. Bowers, “Highly efficient vertical degassing channels for low-temperature InP-to-silicon direct wafer bonding on the silicon-on-insulator substrate,” Journal of Vacuum Science &.
Raskin, "Low-temperatur wafer bonding: a study of tom formation and influence on bonding force," Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, vol.
