A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Academic Attitudes for Gifted Elementary and Middle School Students
Jeonghwa Moon Linnea Van Eman Diane Montgomery JEI University Oklahoma State University Oklahoma State University
10)
Recognizing the importance of motivation, goal orientation, and attitudes toward schools is an important component for educators to consider as they establish positive learning communities for gifted learners. The purpose of this study was to describe attitudes toward school and self relationship to schoolwork for students who are enrolled in the 5th, 6th, and 7th grade, identified as gifted, accelerated in at least one subject (mathematics), and living in Korea or the United States. Comparisons were conducted for country of origin and gender for all subscales on the School Attitude Assessment Survey-Revised (McCoach &
Siegle, 2004). Of the 507 participants (278 Korean and 229 American), girls scored higher on the motivation/self-regulation scale than boys and American students scored higher than Korean students on attitudes toward school, academic self perceptions, goal orientation, and motivation. There were no differences by country or gender on attitudes toward teachers.
Key Words: Academic attitudes, Motivation, Gifted students, Cross-cultural Comparison
I. Introduction
In October of 2004, a meta-analysis of research on acceleration practices reported that gifted children who are exposed to accelerated academic opportunities are more likely to achieve academic success; yet, there exists general and pervasive hesitation to accelerate students who are gifted (Colangelo, Assouline, & Gross, 2004). District personnel and parents fear that rapid acceleration might have harmful effects on the social and emotional development of their students and children (Elkind, 2001; Lynch, 1996;
교신저자: 문정화([email protected])
*본 논문은 제11회 아태영재학술대회(호주, 2010.7.31.)에서 발표한 것임.
Journal of Gifted/Talented Education 2010. Vol 20. No 3, pp. 867～883
Swiatek, 2002). Contrary to this fear, studies of children with exceptional gifts and talents who have participated in accelerated programs suffer few negative psychological effects from their accelerated experience (Brody 2004; Colangelo, et al,; Rogers, 2004).
Many in the field of gifted education believe gifted children whose academic needs are not met will be more likely to encounter academic problems in areas such as attitude toward school, attitude toward teachers and classes, motivation and self- regulation, self-perception, and goal values (Colangelo, et al., 2004; Cross, 2002;
McCoach & Siegle, 2003).
Students thrive in settings where they have opportunities to communicate with students who are at the same intellectual level. Academic achievement is more likely to occur when gifted children are provided accelerated experiences which are challenging and rigorous, and when gifted children are given opportunities to interact with intellectual peers as well as their chronological age peers (Colangelo, et al., 2004; Rogers, 2007).
An essential component to a successful learning environment that fosters achievement is engaged and motivated learners (Reis & McCoach, 2002). Yet, we find that some students begin to lose interest in academic achievement and may not work to their potential later in life (Cho, Ahu, Han, & Park, 2008; Grobman, 2006). Investigating the factors associated with high academic achievement for gifted students has revealed differences in attitudes toward school, self, and teachers (McCoach & Siegle, 2003), which has been shown across contexts and culture (Baslanti & McCoach, 2006; Neihard, 2006, Moore, Ford, & Milner, 2005).
Aspects of high school learning communities that support gifted learners were studied by Buchanan and Woerner (2002). They found support for three elements supporting learning: (1) a strong focus on choice and challenge to develop interests, (2) high involvement in self-directed learning demonstrating initiative, and (3) to become socially conscious. The students in the five high schools studied shared positive attitudes toward school, teachers, and peers striving to be a part of the learning community. Less is known in the research about the attitudes that middle school students have toward the aspects of their learning community. Furthermore few studies include comparisons with different culture for academic attitudes for gifted students.
The purpose of this study was to determine the academic attitudes for children who
are transitioning from elementary school to middle school, a vulnerable time for peer
identification and self- awareness. Children who are enrolled in 5th, 6th, and 7th grade
from Korea and the United States (specifically Oklahoma) participated in this study;
Country of Origin
Total
US Korean
Gender Male 113 142 255
Female 116 136 252
Total 229 278 507
however, the focus groups were 6th and 7th grade students who were identified by their school as gifted and were accelerated in a content area.
II. Method
This study investigated the academic attitudes of gifted 5th, 6th, and 7th grade boys and girls who participated in accelerated courses from the United States and Korea.
Specifically, this study examined the influence of gender and country of origin on academic attitudes based on the five factors of the School Attitude Assessment Survey-R (academic self-perception, attitude towards school, attitude towards teachers and classes, motivation and self-regulation, and goal valuation).
1. Participants
Participants for this study included 278 Korean and 229 United States (specifically Oklahoma) who are 5th, 6th, and 7th grade students identified as gifted. Combined there were 252 girls and 255 boys (See Table 1). Students from both countries were enrolled in accelerated classes.
<Table 1> Participants by Gender and Country of Origin
a. Korean participants
The Korean students were identified as gifted from the cities of Seoul and Incheon,
and the provincial school districts of Gyeonggi and South Choongcheong. There are
several kinds of public education systems in Korea to serve gifted students. These
educational options include the school for gifted students, an institute associated with a
university, an institute associated with the educational office of each metropolitan city
and each province, and gifted classes in general schools. The school for gifted model of
educational programs is the science high school, in which all enrolled students are
identified as mathematically and scientifically gifted. The other programs are for gifted
middle school students or gifted elementary school students.
All the 5th grade participants in this study are from Gifted Institute attached to Incheon University(5 elementary schools). The 6th grade participants are from either the Gifted Institutes attached to educational office of Gyeonggi Province (seven elementary schools) or from gifted accelerated learning classes in two elementary schools and three middle schools in Seoul. The 7th grade participants are from the Gifted Institute attached to Incheon University (eight middle schools) and Kongjoo University in South Choongcheong Province (10 middle schools), from Gifted Institutes attached to educational office of Seoul City (three middle schools), or from accelerated gifted classes in Gyeonggi Province (four middle schools).
The participants in this study were identified in three or four steps. Each institute has a different identification system for gifted. Those are teacher recommendation, giftedness test, academic achievement tests, and in-depth interviews. Even though each Gifted Institute attached to university has different identification method, most institutes follow four steps. They use giftedness test developed by Korea Education Development Institute and creative problem solving tests in math and science developed by professors of each university. Participants in this study are identified for gifted programs by scoring in the top from 1～3%. on the test of giftedness or/and achievement test.
Most gifted institutes associated with the metropolitan city and province as well as the gifted classes use three steps which are teacher recommendation, giftedness test and in-depth interview. The 5th and 6th grade participants in this study have an extra 120 hours of class per year in Math, Science, and English after school and during a multiple-day camp. And the 7th grade participants have an extra 120 hours of class per year in Math and Science. Each institute has a different system consisting of the 120 hours. All participants in this study were taking the 120-hour course accelerated in math and science.
b. American participants
This group of elementary and middle school students from the United States was
chosen for this study because of the accelerated math placement. The pool of
mathematically gifted students was from two intermediate schools (5th and 6th grade)
and one middle school (7th grade) from Oklahoma. There are no special gifted schools
in the school district. The district serves all range of intellectual ability within each
school. Gifted students receive services at the intermediate grades (5th and 6th grade)
through enrichment or through accelerated classes in both intermediate schools and the middle school (7th grade). Gifted students included in this study were only those who were participating in accelerated math courses. Accelerated math courses included Pre-Algebra, Algebra I, Geometry, or Algebra II. The rationale for establishing a Pre-Algebra/Algebra program at the 5th and 6th grade level was to bring mathematically talented students together to benefit academically from an accelerated curriculum (Colangelo, et al., 2004) in accordance with the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 1989) call over twenty years ago to identify and nurture outstanding math talent or giftedness. Further, educators recognize the inadequacy of current identification practices used to identify underrepresented potential in most school districts. The student most neglected, in terms of realizing full potential, is the gifted student of mathematics. Outstanding mathematical ability is a precious societal resource, sorely needed to maintain leadership in a technological world (p. 18).
According to NCTM, students with mathematical promise exhibit the following characteristics: ability or aptitude for mathematical reasoning, motivation necessary to succeed, belief in one's ability to succeed, experience with the subject content, and opportunity to participate in advanced level courses (Sheffield, 2003).
All gifted students in this suburban school district are identified for the gifted services in one of two ways. Students qualify for gifted services by scoring in the top 3% on the Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) (Lohman and Hagen, n. d.), a full-scale intelligence (aptitude test). Students may also qualify for gifted services through a multi-criteria category. Students, who do not qualify for services by scoring in the 97
thpercentile but are within four points of the qualifying score on the CogAT are placed on an identification matrix. The matrix includes CogAT scores along with other academic criterion such as CRT (Criterion Reference Tests) math and CRT reading scores which are state mandated end of year assessments, teacher and parent evaluations which are assigned a point value. At the 5th, 6th, or 7th grade, students who accumulate 15 total points on the identification matrix qualify for gifted services under the state multi-criteria category.
Students were identified to participate in accelerated math courses through utilizing a
talent development math matrix. A pool of students was identified for out-of-grade level
assessment by earning three or more points on the math matrix. The math matrix
consists of six possible indicators of mathematical potential with weighted scores
including scores from teacher recommendations (one point), the CogAT, full scale
aptitude test both comprehensive and quantitative scores (two points each), Oklahoma Math League competition OML (two points), CRT math and CRT reading scores (one-half point each); a similar concept to a portfolio for talent development. The objective was to establish a group of students suspected of having high ability in mathematics and to make every attempt to avoid missing potentially talented student.
Students accumulating three points or more on the matrix were further evaluated by administering the Orleans-Hanna-OH (Hanna, n. d.) and the Iowa Algebra Aptitude-IAAT (Schoen & Ansley, n. d.); out of grade assessments for algebraic reasoning. Students scoring a minimum of 180 (90%) total points on these tests are eligible to take Algebra 1. Students scoring a minimum of 140 (70%) on the combined OH and IAAT are given the opportunity to take Pre-Algebra. Parents were informed of their child's assessment results and placement. Parents of students scoring below 140, but in the 130～139 range, who were interested in pursuing Pre-Algebra were allowed to fill out a mathematically promising characteristics checklist so that students might be assessed in more depth for possible placement.
2. Instrument
Academic attitudes for this study were assessed by scores on the School Attitude Assessment Survey-Revised (SAAS-R; McCoach & Siegle, 2003). The scales or variables associated with academic attitudes included attitude towards school, attitudes towards teachers and classes, motivation and self-regulation, academic self- perceptions, and goal valuation.
The School Attitude Assessment Survey-Revised (SAAS-R) contains 35 items that are indicators of one of five factors designed to measure perceptions and attitudes toward and motivation in school. Statements are rated on a 7-point Likert-like agreement scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree.
a. Reliability
In their 2003 study, McCoach and Siegle found good internal consistency reliability for the individual factors for students in 9
thgrade through 12
thgrades as the Cronbach's alpha coefficients were above .85. Internal consistency reliability for the individual factors included (Attitude towards School, α=.87; Attitude towards Teachers, α =.89;
Motivation/Self-regulation, α =.91; Academic Self-perception, α =.86; and Goals, α =.89).
The Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the 35 statements on each subscale of the
SAAS-R revealed that the US and Korean students combined internal consistency fell
US Korea Combined
No. of N=229 N=278 N=507
Items
α α α
Attitude _ school 5 0.92 0.87 0.84
Attitude _ teachers 7 0.92 0.67 0.85
Motivation _ self-reg 10 0.91 0.86 0.88
Academic self-percep 7 0.81 0.81 0.79
Goal valuation 6 0.89 0.79 0.79
Achievers
(n=120)
Underachievers
(n=56)
Subscales Mean SD Mean SD p d
ASP 6.17 0.59 5.84 0.973 0.019 0.46
ATT 5.33 0.915 4.58 1.015 <.001 0.78
ATS 5.33 1.19 4.41 1.54 0.001 0.67
Goal valuation 6.56 0.592 5.32 1.42 <.001 1.23
MOT/S-R 5.39 0.975 3.88 1.37 <.001 1.29
within reliability the attitude toward school .84 and attitude toward teachers .85 The motivation/self-regulation scale also demonstrated good internal consistency reliability at .88. Internal consistency reliability was considered acceptable for both goal valuation and academic self-perception scales in the present study at ( α =.79). Overall scores fell within a range from good to high internal consistency. By country; subscale scores of the SAAS-R for the US students demonstrated high internal consistency reliability on all but academic self-perception which was considered good at ( α =.81). Internal consistency for subscale scores with Korea students was good for three of the subscales, ranging from .81 to .87, while goal valuation was considered acceptable at ( α =.79). Attitude toward teachers was low at ( α =.67).
<Table 2> Internal consistency coefficients for the SAAS-R
b. Validity
The SAAS-R instrument, according to McCoach and Siegle, demonstrates evidence of adequate construct validity, criterion-related validity, and internal consistency reliability.
Table 3 shows their results for criterion-related validity as demonstrated by a series of a t tests on the mean scale scores of the five factors. The authors believe that four of the five factors of the SAAS-R appear to distinguish gifted achievers from gifted under- achievers.
<Table 3> Tests and effect size measures on the five sub-scales of the SAAS-R
Note. ASP=academic self-perceptions; ATT=attitudes toward teachers; ATS=attitudes toward school; MOT/S-R=motivation/self-regulation (McCoach & Siegle, 2003)
Scale Country Gender Mean SD n
US boys 29.40 5.871 113
School
girls 30.94 5.262 116
Total 30.18 5.612 229
Korea boys 26.60 6.048 142
girls 26.66 5.535 136
Total 26.63 5.793 278
Total boys 27.84 6.120 255
girls 28.63 5.808 252
Total 28.23 5.974 507
Teacher
US boys 38.67 7.200 113
girls 39.83 7.738 116
Total 39.26 7.484 229
Korea boys 38.04 8.968 142
girls 37.99 6.255 136
Total 38.01 7.746 278
Total boys 38.32 8.222 255
girls 38.83 7.023 252
Total 38.57 7.647 507
Motivation
US boys 55.85 9.343 113
girls 59.86 9.382 116
Total 57.88 9.556 229
III. Results
The purpose of this study was to determine the academic attitudes of intellectually gifted children from culturally diverse backgrounds who are transitioning from elementary school to middle school. The influence of gender and country of origin on academic attitudes (across the subscales) was determined utilizing a 2 × 2 MANOVA with gender and country serving as the between-subject variables and the five academic attitudes subscales (attitudes toward school, attitudes towards teachers and classes, motivation and self-regulation, academic self-perception, and goal valuation) served as the independent variables. The means and standard deviations for each subscale for gender and country of origin are presented in Table 4. Figures from 1 to 5 show comparisons of the means and standard deviations for each subscale. Table 5 demonstrates the response to the research question with the results of the MANOVA.
<Table 4> Descriptive Statistics for SAAS-R by Country of Origin and Gender
Korea boys 50.27 9.663 142
girls 52.19 10.548 136
Total 51.21 10.133 278
Total boys 52.75 9.901 255
girls 55.72 10.716 252
Total 54.22 10.411 507
Self
US boys 42.51 4.480 113
girls 42.59 4.874 116
Total 42.55 4.674 229
Korea boys 37.31 6.323 142
girls 36.47 5.594 136
Total 36.90 5.981 278
Total boys 39.62 6.144 255
girls 39.29 6.088 252
Total 39.45 6.113 507
Goal
US boys 39.81 3.464 113
girls 40.18 3.699 116
Total 40.00 3.582 229
Korea boys 35.58 5.021 142
girls 34.90 5.588 136
Total 35.25 5.307 278
Total boys 37.45 4.868 255
girls 37.33 5.478 252
Total 37.39 5.175 507
[Figure 1] Attitude toward school
[Figure 2] Attitude towards teachers
[Figure 3] Motivation
[Figure 4] Academic self perception
Effect Hypothesis df F Sig.
η
ρ2Intercept Hotelling’s Trace 5 8578.5 0 0.99
Country Hotelling’s Trace 5 46.76 .00* 0.32
Gender Hotelling’s Trace 5 6.89 .00* 0.07
Country * Gender Hotelling’s Trace 5 0.53 0.76 0.01
Test Between-Subject Effects
Source Dependent Variable df F Sig.
η
ρ2Corrected Model
att_sch 3 17.63 .00* 0.1
att_teach 3 1.55 0.2 0.01
motivation 3 23.58 .00* 0.12
aca_self 3 45.93 .00* 0.22
goal 3 44.96 .00* 0.21
Country
att_sch 1 48.39 .00* 0.09
att_teach 1 3.31 0.07 0.01
motivation 1 57.6 .00* 0.1
aca_self 1 136.49 .00* 0.21
goal 1 133.23 .00* 0.21
Gender
att_sch 1 2.487 0.12 0.005
att_teach 1 0.658 0.42 0.001
motivation 1 11.54 .001* 0.022
aca_self 1 0.611 0.44 0.001
goal 1 0.137 0.71 0
Country * Gender
att_sch 1 2.111 0.15 0.004
att_teach 1 0.782 0.38 0.002
motivation 1 1.442 0.23 0.003
aca_self 1 0.902 0.34 0.002
goal 1 1.647 0.2 0.003
[Figure 5] Goal valuation
Question: What is the influence of gender and country on academic attitudes?
<Table 5> Multivariate Analysis for Academic Attitudes by Country of Origin and Gender
Corrected Total
att_sch 506
att_teach 506
motivation 506
aca_self 506
goal 506
The MANOVA results provided evidence in support of homogeneity of covariance through Box's M (213.335). When examining the five subscales of academic attitudes as a set, the Hotelling's Trace indicates that American and Korean children scored differently to statistically significant degree [F=46.76, p< .01, η
p2=.99]. The effect of country of origin on the academic attitudes was moderate, as indicated by η
p2=.32.
Similarly the MANOVA analysis suggests that academic attitudes differ significantly for gifted students by gender [F=6.89, p<.01]. Although the relationship between gender and academic attitudes is significant, the effect size is small η
p2=.07. The result of the analysis indicate that there was no significant interaction for country and gender [F=.53, p=.76].
Because the overall model demonstrated statistical significance for country and gender, Univariate between tests were examined for each of the independent variables on each level of the dependent variables. The results indicate that four of the five variables were significantly related to whether the gifted student lived in the United States or in Korea.
Country was significantly related to attitude towards school [F 1, 506=48.39, p<.01, η
p2
=.09], motivation [F 1, 506=57.60, p<.01, η
p2=.10], academic self-perception [F 1, 506=136.45, p<.01, η
p2= .21], goal [F 1, 506=133.23, p<.01, η
p2=.21] to a small degree.
There was no significant relationship for attitude towards teachers [F 1, 506=3.31, p=.069, η
p2
= .07].
The results of the univariate between subject analysis of gender and the academic attitude variables indicate that there is a significant relationship with motivation [F 1, 506=11.54, p<.01, η
p2=.02]. However gender does not seem to significantly relate to the other four variables; attitude towards school [F 1, 506 =2.487, p=.12, η
p2=.01], attitude towards teachers [F 1, 506=.658, p=.42, η
p2= .00], academic self-perception [F 1, 506=.611, p=.44, η
p2=.00], or goal valuation [F 1, 506=.14, p=.71, η
p2=.00].
IV. Summary and Discussion
It is hard to consider that the participants for this study were homogeneous in
selection between two groups: while Korean participants were from four respective areas such as Seoul, Incheon, Kyugki province, and Choongcheong province, Americans ones from the state of Oklahoma only. Among other limitations are identification process of giftedness and contents of acceleration between two groups. In spite of the above possible limitations, this study give some valid implications.
In an effort to determine the ways that gifted boys and girls who are enrolled in (5th, 6th, and 7th grade) accelerated programs express their perceptions of the learning community in which they study and learn, this research administered the Student Academic Attitudes Survey-Revised. The five subscales represent attitudes toward school, teachers, academic self, goal orientation, and self regulation or motivation. Without any significant interaction effect, we found main effects for country of origin for all scales except attitude toward teachers. The American gifted students scored higher on the SAAS-R than the Korean children on attitudes toward school and perceptions of academic self, goals, and motivation. The SAAS-R has been used across other cultures, so we speculate that cultural differences might prevail on the ways that Korean children describe themselves. The American students in an accelerated learning environment demonstrate high positive achievement indicators consistent with the research on effects of acceleration (Neihart, 2006).
Only one subscale, motivation in terms of self regulation, demonstrated a significant difference by gender with girls from Korea and the United States scoring higher than the boys from these countries. Motivation is a characteristic that is essential to achievement for gifted students (McCoach & Siegle, 2005). Setting goals, organizing plans, and managing time are regulatory skills in motivation that lead to academic achievement. The gender differences may be explained by a greater confidence in ability as observed in Britain by Freeman (2004) or a resistance to the lower levels of confidence in math indicated by an analysis of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS, 1999) report conducted by Fox, Engle, and Paek (2001). In middle school girls are likely less vulnerable to the social pressure to demonstrate less motivation to achieve that is predominant in older adolescents and high school students (Heller & Ziegler, 1996).
Further research is needed to understand why American students scored higher on the
SAAS-R than Korean students on attitudes toward school and perceptions of academic
self-perception, goals, and motivation. It is assumed that differences in educational
culture such as the emphasis placed on school work and expectation for success between
the two countries may affect academic attitudes. Research with the same data might look more closely at possible differences by grade to further clarify these culture differences, and explore more about the educational culture and academic expectations of each country. Also, further research is needed to determine the reasons why girls demonstrate stronger motivation and self regulating behaviors compared to boys regardless of which country they were from. Additionally research should compare the academic attitudes of gifted students who are participating in accelerated classes with those gifted students who are not accelerated, but are participate in enrichment activities of the general curriculum. Finally, it would be interesting to know if similar results would occur with non-gifted groups.
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= 국문초록 =
청소년기 영재들의 학업 태도에 대한 국제 비교
