Week 3:

Week 3:

Theories of Communicative Language Ability

- Competing hypotheses about communicative language ability based on various assumptions as to the structure of language proficiency:

i.e., the divisible competence (multi-dimensional) model (Lado, 1961) &

the non-unitary (modular) models (Canale & Swain, 1980; Canale, 1983; Cummins, 1983; Bachman, 1990) vs.

unitary-competence (uni-dimensional) model (Oller, 1976).

- Two of the extreme possibilities - the stronger version of unitary competence hypothesis (UCH) and complete divisibility hypothesis were ruled out, but the partial divisibility hypothesis was supported (Bachman & Palmer, 1981, 1983; Carroll, 1983).

- Since both the weaker version of UCH and modular theory assume a componentially complex general factor, the competing hypotheses are no longer mutually exclusive, but rather complementary.

￭ Theoretical Frameworks

A. Oller's framework

a) Language proficiency cannot meaningfully be broken down into a variety of separate components. (Stong version of UCH)

b) weaker version - that underlying performance on many language processing tasks must be a general factor, which is componentially complex (1983).

B. Canale's Framework

a) As opposed to UCH, Canale & Swain (1980) propose four different components of communicative competence in their model., which are essential for a theoretical understanding of communication.

(i.e., grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, strategic)

b) • grammatical competence: concerned with sentence grammar and semantics.

• sociolinguistic competence: includes socio-cultural rules for determining the appropriateness of meanings and forms.

• discourse competence: associated with the knowledge to achieve unified text concerned with cohesion and coherence.

• strategic competence: composed of verbal and nonverbal strategies used to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to performance factors or to insufficient other competences.

c) Building on the range of four competences, Canale (1983) postulates three dimensions of language proficiency: basic, communicative, autonomous.

d) • basic language proficiency: concerned with the biological universals required for any language development and use

• communicative language proficiency: focused on social, interpersonal uses of language through spoken and written channels.

• autonomous language proficiency: concerned with less directly social, more intrapersonal uses of language (e.g., problem-solving)

C. Cummins' Framework

a) With reduced importance of the dichotomy of CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Performance) and BICS (basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills) in his previous theoretical framework (1980) for language proficiencies in relation to school achievement, Cummins (1983) postulates two orthogonal continua

(i.e., context and cognitive efforts) along which language proficiency may vary.

On the one hand, there is variation with respect to the degree of contextual support for a given communicative exchange or bit of discourse, on the other, there is the degree of cognitive effort required for comprehension and expression.

b) These dimensions are believed to vary somewhat independently, though there are complex interactions between them, explicitly recognizing that even face-to-face activities can be cognitively demanding.

D. Bachman's Framework

- Postulates a general model for describing the different factors that affect performance on language tests. This framework includes three factors:

1) Communicative language ability, 2) Test method facets, &

3) Random factors

1) Communicative language ability includes

(1) language competence, composed of

organizational competence (grammatical , textual) &

pragmatic competence (illocutionary, and sociolinguistic),

(2) strategic competence (determining the most effective means of achieving a communicative goal), and

(3) psychophysiological mechnisms:

the channal (auditory, visual) and mode (receptive, productive).

2) Test method facets consist of (1) environment,

(2) rubric, (3) input,

(4) expected response, and

(5) relationship between input and response.

3) Random factors include (1) personal characteristics,

(2) interactions among language abilities and test method facets, (3) random measurement error.

※ Speech Acts

1. Locutionary speech acts

2. Illocutionary speech acts

3. Perlocutionary speech acts

Features of Communicative Language Tests

1) It is essential to be as precise as possible about the skills and performance conditions that are the most important components of language use in particular contexts.

2) The sample of communicative language ability should be as representative as possible.

3) To measure language proficiency adequately in each situation, account must be taken of: where, when, how, with whom, and why the language is to be used, and on what topics, and with what effect.

4) The important role of context as a determinant of communicative language ability is stressed and a integrative approach to assessment as against a decontextualized approach is advocated. Language cannot be meaningful if it is devoid of context (linguistic, discoursal, and sociocultural).

5) The authenticity of tasks and the genuineness of texts in tests should be pursued despite the problems involved in the definition of them and their realization.

￭ The Difficulty

- How linguistic competence or communicative competence relates to actual communicative ability?

- Direct testing requires an integrated performance from the candidate involving communication under realistic linguistic, situational, cultural, and affective constraints.

Proficiency Tests

￭ 1980s as decade of "communicative testing"

- two "incompatible" approaches:

1. Communicative approach: language proficiency as divisible ability 2. AEI approach: language proficiency as unitary ability

※ ACTFL: American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages ETS: Educational Testing Service

ILR: Interagency Language Roundtable

￭ Characteristics of "proficiency" tests

- concerned with

what the learner knows about the forms of the language & how to use it appropriately in contexts ---> (competence)

the extent to which the learner is actually able to use this knowledge in a meaningful communication situation ---> (performance)

￭ Communicative Proficiency (CP)

※ Concept of "communicative proficiency"

= communicative competence + proficiency = communicative language proficiency (CLP) = communicative language ability (CLA)

￭ Components of CP

- Uncertainty of the specific nature of the components

- No adequate theories of communicative language use yet available

￭ Development of CP

- Exposure to meaningful language use (i.e., comprehensible input) crucial

- Characteristics of language in communication (Morrow, 1977):

1) interaction-based 2) to some extent unpredictable 3) purposive

4) authentic 5) occurs in context

￭ Factors affecting CP development

<Learner factors> <School factors>

• extracurricular reading, • appropriate curriculum • personality, • adequate methodology

• strong motivation, (classroom techniques & materials) • foreign language anxiety, • teacher's language proficiency &

• use of strategies, • use of target lg. as lg. of instruction • time & effort invested in study • facilities/equipments

• positive attitude • nondiscouraging personality

towards the target lg/culture, etc.• trainings/workshops for teachers, etc.

Mina: Hello.

Alex: Hi, Mina. ⓐcan you come to my house? My mom and I ⓑam making brownies.

Mina: OK. But what ⓒis a brownie?

Alex: It’s a chocolate cake. Americans love it.

(In Alex’s kitchen) Mina: Hi, Mrs. Baker.

Mrs. Baker: Hi, Mina. ⓓCome in. We're making brownies.

Mina: What do we need, Mrs. Baker?

Mrs. Baker: We ⓔneed some flour, baking powder, cocoa powder, butter, sugar, milk, and eggs.

FATHER: My sons, I’m ① getting old and ill. I ② will die soon.

SONS: Oh, Father. Don’t say that.

FATHER: Now, I have to say this. I have the house and the farm. So, I’ll give all my things to the cleverest son.

SONS: Who is the cleverest son?

FATHER: I’ll give you a test. ③ There is three coins on the table. Take one coin each. Go and buy something and ④ fill the room with it.

THE SECOND: Fill the room with one coin?

FATHER: That’s right.

SONS: Give me ⑤ a lot of straw, please.

<Appendix A>

Examples of Teacher-Constructed Test Items

※ 다음 글을 읽고 물음에 답하세요.

※ 윗글의 해당 부분에서 동사의 형태가 잘 못 된 것을 고르시오.

① ⓐ ② ⓑ ③ ⓒ ④ ⓓ ⑤ ⓔ

※ 다음 글을 읽고 물음에 답하시오.

※ 윗글의 ① ~⑤에서 문법적으로 적절하지 않은 것은?.

① getting old and ill ② will die ③ There is

④ fill the room with it ⑤ a lot of straw

We went to Alex's house together to fix his computer. I took the computer apart but couldn't fix it. I finally ( A ). Then I tried to put the parts back together, but I couldn't. Alex called a computer repair shop, but the repairman couldn't visit his house that day. Alex had to use the computer to do his homework, but he couldn't. I felt very sorry about it. That night, I told my father about this. He said to me, "Ingyu, a little knowledge is sometimes very dangerous."

M: Willyoudomeafavor?

W: Okay. What is it?

M: Can you open the window, please? It’s hot in here.

W: Sorry. I’m afraid I can’t. The window is broken.

Minjun: Hey, what are you listening to?

Jenny: I’m listening to a song ①calling Hero.

Minjun: ②What is it about?

Jenny: It’s about the hero inside all of us.

Minjun: What do you mean ‘the hero inside us’?

Jenny: Well, we can all be heroes

Minjun: ③I don’t get it. Can you explain more?

Jenny: For example, a firefighter, a teacher. . . ④anyone that tries their best is a hero.

Minjun: I see. ⑤Speaking of heroes, who’s your hero?

Jenny: My hero is my mom. She always does her best for the family.

※ 다음을 읽고 물음에 답하시오.

※ 윗글을 읽고 빈칸 (A)에 가장 알맞은 것을 고르시오.

① gives up ② gave up ③ give up ④given up ⑤ giving up

※ 다음 중 밑줄 친 문장과 의미가 같은 것을 고르시오.

① How did you like it?

② Can I ask you a favor?

③ Can you tell me why?

④ What do you want to be?

⑤ How about you?

※ 다음 대화를 읽고 밑줄친 표현이 바르지 않은 것을 고르시오.

<Appendix B>

출제

범위 교과서(7,8과) 및 교과서 외

예상점수 55/100 점 출

제 자

(인) 계 부장 교감 교장

(인)

소요시간 50분 (인)

번

호 내용영역

행동영역 정답

통과율 배 점 정

답 번

호 내용영역

행동영역 정답

통과율

배점 채점

기준 정답 및 지 유사정답

식이 해적

용 E B

S 상 중 하 지

식이 해적

용 E B

S 상 중 하

1 빈칸 넣기 O O 3.2 2

2 글의 제목 O O 3.3 1 주1

3 글의 위치 O O 2.9 5

4 작가의 심경 O O 2.8 2 주2

5 글의 일치 O O 2.7 5

6 어휘 O O 3.1 2 주3

7 빈칸 넣기 O O 3.2 5

8 독립부정사 O O 2.8 4 주4

9 어법 O O 3.2 4

10어법 O O 2.8 4주5

11글의 순서 O O 3.0 5

12어법 O O O 2.9 5 주6

13글 요약 O O 3.1 2

14적절한 어휘 O O 2.9 4 주7

15글의 주제 O O 2.2 1

16글의 일치 O O 3.1 3 주8

17글의 제목 O O 2.8 4

18글의 주제 O O 3.1 5주9

19빈칸 넣기 O O 3.1 1 주

20사실 일치 O O 2.9 2 10

21글의 제목 O O 2.9 4 주

22어법 O O O 3.3 3 11

23연결사 넣기 O O O 2.7 2 주 24문맥위치찾기 O O 3.0 3 12

25지시어파악 O O 2.9 2

서 술 1 26무 관 한 문 장 찾

기 O O 3.2 5

27전후내용파악 O O 2.9 3

28어법 O O O 2.9 4

29지시어찾기 O O 2.7 4

서 술 2

30문장요약하기 O O 2.9 3

31주제찾기 O O 2.4 1

32제목찾기 O O 2.5 5

33빈칸채우기 O O 3.5 1

서 술 3

34요지찾기 O O 3.1 3

35 36 37

서 술 4 38

39 40

합 계 5 21 8 4 8 197 100점 합 계 점

◈ 1학년 : 국민공통 2․3학년 : 인문․사회, 자연․이공 ◈출제기준 1. 정답통과율 : 상 30%, 중 40%, 하 30%

문항 번호

대영역 중영역 평가 내용

1 듣기 세부내용 파악 대화를 듣고 묘사하는 대상에 관한 세부내용파악 2 듣기 세부내용 파악 대화를 듣고 대화 장소 파악

3 듣기 흐름 파악 대화를 듣고 화자의 심정 파악 4 듣기 세부내용 파악 말을 듣고 내용 일치여부 파악 5 듣기 중심내용 파악 말을 듣고 주제 파악

6 듣기 흐름 파악 대화를 듣고 일이나 사건의 원인과 결과 파악 7 듣기 세부내용 파악 대화를 듣고 찾아가려는 곳 파악

8 듣기 중심내용 파악 대화를 듣고 요지 파악

9 듣기 중심내용 파악 대화를 듣고 전화를 건 목적 파악 10 듣기 흐름 파악 말을 듣고 일어난 사건의 전후관계 파악 11 듣기 중심내용 파악 말을 듣고 방송의 목적 파악

12 말하기 세부내용 파악 전화 대화에서 세부내용 묻고답하기 13 말하기 세부내용 파악 대화에서 세부 내용 묻고 답하기

14 말하기 중심내용 파악 말을 듣고 상황에 적절하게 주요내용 묻고 답하기 15 읽기 중심내용 파악 말을 듣고 요지 말하기

16 읽기 세부내용 파악 글을 읽고 언급된 내용 파악

17 읽기 세부내용 파악 글을 읽고 광고문과 일치하는 내용 파악 18 읽기 중심내용 파악 글을 읽고 제목 파악

<Appendix C>

2015년 국가수준 학업성취도 평가 문제지 문항정보 (중3영어)

19 읽기 흐름 파악 글을 읽고 일이나 사건의 시간적 순서 파악 20 읽기 세부내용 파악 글을 읽고 서로 다른 입장 파악

21 읽기 흐름 파악 글을 읽고 낱말이나 어구의 의미를 문맥으로 추측 22 읽기 중심내용 파악 글을 읽고 편지를 쓴 목적 파악

23 읽기 흐름 파악 글을 읽고 내용 상 빈칸에 들어갈 내용 추측 24 읽기 세부내용 파악 도표가 포함된 짧은 글을 읽고 세부내용 파악 25 읽기 중심내용 파악 글을 읽고 주장하는 내용 파악

26 읽기 흐름 파악 글을 읽고 일의 절차나 과정 파악

27 읽기 흐름 파악 글을 읽고 내용의 흐름 상 적절한 연결어 파악 28 읽기 중심내용 파악 글을 읽고 요지 파악

29 읽기 중심내용 파악 글을 읽고 교훈 파악

30 읽기 흐름 파악 글을 읽고 일이나 사건의 논리적 순서 파악 31 읽기 흐름 파악 글을 읽고 일이나 사건의 원인과 결과 파악 32 읽기 흐름 파악 글을 읽고 글의 전개 순서나 논리적 구조 파악

33 쓰기 묘사/설명

글쓰기

도표를 설명하는 간단한 문장이나 글쓰기

34 쓰기 묘사/설명

글쓰기 주변 사람/대상에 대한 간단한 문장이나 글쓰기 서답형1 쓰기 세부내용 쓰기 대화를 듣고 세부내용 쓰기

서답형2 쓰기 세부내용 쓰기 말을 듣고 세부내용을 묻는 질문에 대한 답 쓰기 서답형3 말하기 중심내용 말하기 대화를 듣고 요지 말하기

서답형4 말하기 세부내용 말하기 글을 읽고 세부 내용 묻고 답하기 서답형5 쓰기 중심내용 쓰기 글을 읽고 요지 쓰기