Vol. 49, No. 3G O2012PG pp. 426-451
ࢄࠤॷࠜଲଲॺฃীணୠୋࡦۍഉࠫଭ֝ॷߢंজ
Գࢢ
 ࢢܛச
 ࢮָ֫
 ׆
 ෛశ
A Review of CO
2Storage Monitoring Based on Geophysical Methods
Minji Kang, Dong-Joo Min , Kwon-Gyu Park, Won-Ki Kim and Cheol Huh
Abstract : Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is considered to be one of the most effective methods to remove CO2 from the atmosphere. To understand the behavior of CO2 underground and assess its stability and safety, CO2 storage site should be monitored periodically. To properly monitor the behavior of CO2, it is important to choose appropriate monitoring techniques for the properties of storage sites. In this paper, we review what kinds of geophysical methods have been used to monitor CO2 storage sites abroad. We introduce monitoring programs for Sleipner, Weyburn, Lost Hills, West Pearl Queen, Nagaoka, In Salah, Frio, Otway, and Ketzin. In most cases, time-lapse seismic methods have been applied. Gravity, satellite airborne radar interferometry (InSAR), ground penetrating radar (GPR), electrical resistivity tomography, and electromagnetic imaging methods have also been used for CO2 monitoring. From these case histories, we note that it is very important to choose proper geophysical methods to effectively monitor the behavior of CO2 at the storage site. We hope that this review paper will contribute to determining which methods are appropriate to monitor Korean CO2 storage site in the near future.
Key words : Carbon storage, Monitoring, Geophysical exploration, Storage sites abroad, Time-lapse څ أ ߯Ŗ˞رۋԓজՙεܶۋşڦॢমęۺۍѓѪڷͿۋԓজՙݓܼ۹ۤşցۋܳЀыČەɰ.
ݓܼ۹ۤʽۋԓজՙۆäʴںࣷ؊ॠČঞąقʂॢٖॳф؋܁ՁںथÀॠşڦ३Դəݓ՚ۺۍϿɦࢢτ ۋज़څॠ϶, মęۺۍϿɦࢢτںڦ३۹ۤݓՁقϑə߯ۺۆϿɦࢢτѓѪںԸ࢘ॠəìۋܼڅॠɰ.
ٍ҆ĵقԴəʂशۺۍۋԓজՙݓܼ۹॒ۤͿ܄࣡ۍ֢͆ۋ॒ȃ, ڟۋѥ, Ϳ֟࣡৩, ڟ֟࣡ऑࡴ, ǣÀ١
ࠢ, ۍԕ͆, ॒ν١, ١࣡ڟۋ, ࡀݕˣۆԐغقԴۺڌʽϿɦࢢτ॒ͿŔ͖قʂ३ԕट҃ؕɰ. ۋ˞Ͽɦࢢτ
॒ͿŔ͖ںܓԐॢĀęێъۺڷͿ֨ÂąęՁࣷԐÀÀۤψۋۋڌʼؽəʚ۹ۤݓՁق˰͆3ڙ
ՁࣷԐٮ֨߸ė-֨߸ėՁࣷࢹϿŔ͒क़фսݔՁࣷԐÀսॱʼşʪॠٕɰ. ۋٽقʪܼͳԐ, ۍėڦՁԐ, ͪۋɰԐ, ۻşҼ۹२ࢹϿŔ͒क़фۻۙԐˣۋսॱʼؽɰ. ३ٽԐͻεқԵ३҆Āę
মęۺۍϿɦࢢτںڦ३۹ۤݓՁق˰͆ÁşɰδܛΪۆНνԐѓѪ˞ۋۋڌʼČەڼںঝۍॣ
սەؽɰ. ٍ҆ĵقԴսॱʽĶٽԐͻқԵڹ߸ڍνǣ͆ݓܼ҃ݓÀԸ܁ʼؽں˺߯ۺۆϿɦࢢτ
şѪںêࢹॠəʚটڌʾսەںìڷͿşʂʽɰ.
ܳڅر ۋԓজՙݓܼ۹ۤ, Ͽɦࢢτ, НνԐ, ĶٽԐͻ, ֨Âąę
2011ț9ښ28ێۿս, 2012ț4ښ20ێ֮ԐٰΒ 2012ț6ښ21ێóۦঝ܁
1) Դڐʂॡİقȃݓ֨֟ࢰėॡҙ
2) ॢĶݓݗۙڙٍĵڙݓĵঞąٍĵ҆ҙ
3) ॢĶ३تٍĵڙ३ت؋ۻѓ܃şցٍĵҙ
*Corresponding Author(лʴܳ) E-mail; [email protected]
Address; Department of Energy Systems Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
Դ
߯Ŗ˞رՃćĖĖقԴफڍٮफԺ, ÀРˣۋԜş
ইԜڷͿ֮Áॢक़३εۓČەڷ϶, ۋ͠ॢۋԜş
ۆܳڅۍڷͿۋԓজՙٮÏڹ٣֬À֟قۆॢݓ ĵ٣ǦজÀݓЀʼČەɰ. ۋԓজՙəԓغআϼۋ
ԓغьۻę॥ƍݓ՚ۺڷͿݒÀ३ٵڷ϶, ইۦٮÏ ڹݓĵ٣ǦজÀݓ՚ʾąڍؘڷͿʌڎ֮ÁॢԦ
ćѺজٮٍۙۦ३ÀьԦॣìڷͿڍͲʽɰ. ۋقՃ ćÁĶڹݓĵ٣ǦজقʂॢĶ܃ۺʂڿѓ؋ںϿԟ ॠşڦ३1992țşѺজঊأںߕĀॠČ1997țİ ࢹۆ܁Դε࢘ॠəˣۋԓজՙÇ߹ںڦॢȤͳں
ݓ՚ॠČەɰ. ۋԓজՙεܶۋşڦॢমęۺۍѓ ѪڷͿ߯Ŗ˞رۋԓজՙपݚф۹ۤşց(CCS:
Carbon Capture and Storage)ۋĶǴٽۺڷͿܳЀы Čەɰ. ۋəজͳьۻՙٮÏۋψڹتۆۋԓজՙ ३ Ժ
Fig. 1. Life cycle of the carbon dioxide capture and storage project (MCMPR, 2005).
εݚܼۺڷͿѕॠəьԦڙڷͿҙࢢۋԓজՙε
қνॠيपݚॢ, ܁ܓæںχܔॠəݓॠݓࠗ՚
ق۹ۤॠəѓѪڷͿʂşͿѓʼəۋԓজՙεݔ ۿۺڷͿܶێսەرşѺজقʂڿॣսەə४֮
şցͿ ۍ܁ыČ ەɰ.
Ŕ͠ǣۋԓজՙÀ۹ۤʽݓࠗǴقĵܓۺĀ॥(Œ
َˣ)ۋьԦॣąڍ۹ۤʽۋԓজՙÀɀʾսە ڷ϶, ۋͩóɀʽۋԓজՙəܳѺঞąфԦć ق֮Áॢٖॳںܶսەɰ. ۋεѓݓॠşڦ३ݓܼ۹
ۤʽۋԓজՙۆäʴتԜфɀيҙεݓ՚ۺڷͿ
Ͽɦࢢτॣज़څÀەɰ. ۋ͠ॢϿɦࢢτęěʹʽş ցںࣀࣥرܳۓфܳۓěν(MMV: Monitoring, Mitigation and Verification)şցۋ͆Č ॢɰ. ܳۓ ф
ܳۓěνşցڹۋԓজՙपݚфݓܼ۹ۤę܁
ۻъقěॢϿɦࢢτşցͿäʴٚࠑşց, äʴěࠑ
şց, ঞąٖॳथÀşցфԐěνşցںप॥ॠ϶, ݓԜ/ݓॠقԴ ۋԓজՙ ҙܕ͟, қप Ԝ, ۹ۤ ম ڱ, ԦćٖॳқԵşցˣںߪࠡॢɰ. ۋԓজՙ
ݓܼ۹ۤϿɦࢢτقəێъۺڷͿՁࣷԐ, ܼͳ
Ԑ, ۻşxۻۙԐ, ڦՁԐˣۆНνԐٮ॥ƍݓĵ জॡۺқԵфʂşϿɦࢢτˣۻًٖقèࠚɰتॢ
Ԑ ѓѪ˞ۋ֨ʪʼČ ەɰ.
ۋԓজՙݓܼ۹ۤęěʹॠيۻՃćۺڷͿࡾČ
ۚڹőϿۆ॒Ϳ܄࣡˞ۋݕॱʼČەɰ. ԜغۺőϿ ۆ॒Ϳ܄࣡ͿəȤβڟۋۆ֢͆ۋ॒ȃ(Sleipner)ݓً,
ࠪǣɰۆڟۋѥ(Weyburn)ݓًˣۋەڷ϶, ۋԓজ
ՙ۹ۤۆ؋ۻՁęɀڦॹںٍĵॠşڦॢࣷێͦ
॒Ϳ܄࣡̚ॢي͠ĶÀقԴսॱʼČەɰ. Ȥβڟۋ,
ܳ, йĶ, ێ҆ ˣۆ ي͠ ǣ͆قԴə 1990țʪҙࢢ
ۋйۋԓজՙݓܼ۹॒ۤͿ܄࣡εսॱॠيŔটڌ ՁںêࢹॠČԜغজॠşڦ३ݓ՚ۺڷͿȤͳॠČە ڷ϶, ۋٮ॥ƍ۹ۤۋԓজՙۆäʴں܁ঝ০ࣷ
؊ॠşڦ३ɰتॢϿɦࢢτşցقʂॢٍĵεটь ০սॱॠČەɰ. মęۺۍۋԓজՙϿɦࢢτںڦ ३۹ۤݓՁقϑə߯ۺۆϿɦࢢτѓѪںԸ࢘ॠ əìۋܼڅॠɰ. ۋԓজՙÀ۹ۤʽ۹Ϊࠗۆ֮ʪ ÀϔڍŪںąڍێъۺڷͿۋڌʼə4D ՁࣷԐ ͿəۋԓজՙقۆॢѺজتԜۋࣷ؊ʼݓ؍ںս
ەڷ϶, ֨߸ėԐÀۺ०ॣսەɰ. ̚ॢگԜۆąڍ
ۍėڦՁۙΒͿҙࢢݓъڵşˣںࣷ؊ॣսەڷǣ
३تقԴəҝÀɠॣսەɰ. ۋٮÏۋÁݓًۆՁ قۺ०ॢϿɦࢢτşѪںəìۋমڱۺۍϿɦࢢ τں ڦ३ ϔڍ ܼڅॠɰ.
ইۦ ڍνǣ͆قԴə ĶÀۺۍ ڙقԴ ۋԓজՙ
ݓܼ۹॒ۤͿ܄࣡εսॱॠČەڷ϶, şܕۙΒقʂ
ॢқԵۋǣԞͿڏԐεࣀ३ݓܼ۹ۤ҃ݓÀĀ
܁ʼϸۋԓজՙÀܳۓʾٚ܁ۋɰ. ۋقʂҼॠيĶ Ǵঞąقۺ०ॢϿɦࢢτşցقʂॢٍĵÀज़څॠ
϶, ۋ͠ॢٍĵεڦ३ĶٽقԴսॱʽϿɦࢢτԐͻ قʂॢқԵۋԸॱʾज़څÀەɰ. ĶٽԐͻεࣀॠي
ر̅ঞąقԴر̅ϿɦࢢτşѪۋۺ०ॢÀεҼİқ Եॣսەڷ϶, ۋ͠ॢۙΒəॳĶǴ҃ݓقۺ०
Table 1. Direct and indirect techniques for monitoring CO2 storage projects (IPCC, 2005)
Measurement technique Measurement parameters Example applications Introduced and natural
tracers
Travel time
Partitioning of CO2 into brine or oil Identification sources of CO2
Tracing movement of CO2 in the storage formation Quantifying solubility trapping
Tracing leakage
Water composition
CO2, HCO3 -, CO3
2-· Major ions Trace elements Salinity
Quantifying solubility and mineral trapping Quantifying CO2-water-rock interactions
Detecting leakage into shallow groundwater aquifers
Subsurface pressure
Formation pressure Annulus pressure
Groundwater aquifer pressure
Control of formation pressure below fracture gradient Wellbore and injection tubing condition
Leakage out of the storage formation
Well logs
Brine salinity Sonic velocity CO2 saturation
Tracking CO2 movement in and above storage formation
Tracking migration of brine into shallow aquifers Calibrating seismic velocities for 3D seismic surveys Time-lapse 3D seismic
imaging
P and S wave velocity Reflection horizons
Seismic amplitude attenuation
Tracking CO2 movement in and above storage formation
Vertical seismic profiling and crosswell seismic imaging
P and S wave velocity Reflection horizons
Seismic amplitude attenuation
Detecting detailed distribution of CO2 in the storage formation
Detection leakage through faults and fractures
Passive seismic monitoring
Location, magnitude and source characteristics
of seismic events
Development of microfractures in formation or caprock
CO2 migration pathways Electrical and
electromagnetic techniques
Formation conductivity Electromagnetic induction
Tracking movement of CO2 in and above the storage formation
Detecting migration of brine into shallow aquifers Time-lapse gravity
measurements
Density changes caused by fluid displacement
Detect CO2 movement in or above storage formation CO2 mass balance in the subsurface
Land surface deformation Tilt
Vertical and horizontal
displacement using interferometry and GPS
Detect geomechanical effects on storage formation and caprock
Locate CO2 migration pathways Visible and infrared imaging
from satellite or planes
Hyperspectral imaging of land
surface Detect vegetative stress
CO2 land surface flux monitoring using flux chambers or eddycovariance
CO2 fluxes between the land
surface and atmosphere Detect, locate and quantify CO2 releases
Soil gas sampling Soil gas composition Isotopic analysis of CO2
Detect elevated levels of CO2, identify source of elevated soil gas CO2, evaluate ecosystem impact
ॢ Ͽɦࢢτ şѪں əʚ টڌʾ ս ەں ìۋɰ.
˰͆Դ, ҆ ȦЛقԴə ĶٽقԴ սॱʽ ۋԓজՙ
ϿɦࢢτԐͻεܓԐॠي֬܃۹ۤݓՁęݓݗĵ ܓق˰͆ر̅НνԐşѪۋۋڌʼؽəÀε܁νॠ ي ՙÒॠČۙ ॢɰ.
ۋԓজՙݓܼ۹ۤۆÒڅ
ۋԓজՙपݚфݓܼ۹ۤڹۋԓজՙεपݚ, ս բф۹ۤॠəę܁ںप॥ॢɰ. Fig. 1ڹܳۆġНԵ ڮۙڙقěॢॱ܁ҙۙЛڦڙধ(MCMPR: Ministerial
Council on Mineral and Petroleum Resources)قԴ2005 țьॱॢ҃ČԴق܃֨ʼرەəۋԓজՙपݚф
۹॒ۤͿ܄࣡ۆݕॱę܁ں҃يܵɰ(MCMPR, 2005).
Ϥ۹पݚę܁قԴəۋԓজՙÀψۋьԦॠəԓغ
֨ԺۋǣьۻՙˣۆьԦڙڷͿҙࢢۋԓজՙεϿ
؉ؓ߹֨ࢇɰ. ۋ˺ٍՙ(Post-combustion), ٍՙۻ (Pre-combustion), տԓՙٍՙ(Oxyfuel combustion) ş ցˣںۋڌॠيۋԓজՙεধսॢɰ(IPCC, 2005).
սբę܁قԴəपݚʽۋԓজՙεपݚڙڷͿҙࢢ
̆رݕ۹ۤݓūݓѕ̚əࣷۋ॒͆ۍںۋڌॠيڏъ
ॢɰ. ۋ˺पݚʽۋԓজՙÀ2ÒۋԜۆԜڷͿڏ ъʼəìںѓݓॠşڦ३҃ࣀ8 MPa ۋԜۆؓͳڷ Ϳؓ߹ॠيČнʪۆԜͿχ˜ɰ(IPCC, 2005). ۋͩ
óڏъʽۋԓজՙəݓࠗǴͿܳۓʼəʚ, À֟۹ Ϊࠗ, ّʂսࠗ, ġ ҝÀɠॢ Եࠗ ˣق ܳۓʽɰ.
ۋԓজՙεܳۓॠə֨߸ėۆÒսфѓॳڹݓݗॡ ۺՁ(ܳۓέ, ࣊ęՁ, ݓࠗ˃ƍ, ߯ʂܳۓؓͳˣ) ق˰͆Ā܁ʽɰ(IPCC, 2005). ۋԓজՙߌқقə
ܳۓ܁ںदşॠəę܁ۋज़څॢʚ, ۋə۹ۤʽۋԓ জՙÀʂşওڹ३ս՚ڷͿɀʼرԦćقٖ
ॳں й࠘ə ìں φş ڦ३Դɰ(ڮʴŖ ˣ, 2007).
ݓܼߌνॢقəۋԓজՙۆɀںѓݓॠäǣ
ɀ֨ܓşقʂߌॠşڦ३ܳۓʽۋԓজՙۆä ʴتԜںݓ՚ۺڷͿϿɦࢢτॣज़څÀەڷ϶, ۋε
ڦ३܁нϿɦࢢτںڦॢܳۓşցфܳۓěν
şցۋज़څॠɰ. ܳۓşցфܳۓěνşցڹ҃
ࣀۆԵڮԓغقԴٮÏۋܳۓέęܳۓؓͳںě
ॣӼχ؉ɦ͆ݓॠق۹ۤʽۋԓজՙۆқपٮۋ ʴںϿɦࢢॢɰ. ϿɦࢢτѓѪڹࡾóݔۿۺۍѓѪ ęÂۿۺۍѓѪڷͿǣɌرݓ϶, Table 1قÂ͜০܁
νʼرەɰ(IPCC, 2005). ݔۿۺۍ ěࠑşցڹݓъ
՚قԴۋԓজՙۆړݔےںݔۿۺڷͿϿɦࢢॠə
ѓѪڷͿ, ѓԐՁʴڦڙՙε࣊ۓॠيۋԓজՙÀړ ݔۍąͿε߸ۺॠيݓॠقʂॢۙΒεصə߸ۺۙ
ݓǣܳۓ܁ŖߌۆࢹتںқԵॠيܳѺঞąقʂ
ॢٖॳںܓԐॠəࢹت-À֟Ԣ॔τ(Soil-gas sampling) ˣۋۋѓѪق՚ॢɰ(ťۦˣ, 2008). Âۿۺěࠑ
şցقəݓĵНνԐфݓĵজॡۺѓѪˣۋ՚ॢɰ (IPCC, 2005). ۋܼقԴݓĵНνԐѪڹۋԓজՙ ۆäʴتԜںমęۺڷͿࣷ؊ॣսەəѓѪڷͿۋ ԓজՙݓܼ۹ۤϿɦࢢτقԴ४֮ۺڷͿۋڌʼČ
ەɰ.
ɰتॢݓĵНνԐѪܼۋԓজՙݓܼ۹ۤϿɦ ࢢτقÀۤটь০ۋڌʼəşցڹՁࣷԐşցۋ ɰ. ۋəٍۙۺ̚əۍėۺڷͿьԦʽࣷÀؒԵںࣀ
३ۻࣷॠϸԴؒԵфŔقप॥ʽڮߕۆՁقۆ३
ŔۻࣷՁۋɵ͆ݓəՁݗقşߣॠيࣷۆՁѺজ Ϳҙࢢнʪٮ՚ʪ(̚əՁćս) ˣۆؒԵۆՁѺ জεڮ߸३Ǵəşցۋɰ(ťۦˣ, 2008). ݓॠۆۋ ԓজՙÀ߹ۺʼϸۋԓজՙۆǰڹнʪÀ۹ۤʽ
ࠗۆڮߕۆнʪقٖॳںܳəʚ, ݓशՁࣷԐͿ
ÇݓॣսەəۙڮԜۆۋԓজՙ͟ڹ2,500-10,000 ࢻۍìڷͿ؎Ͳ܋ەɰ(IPCC, 2005). ՁࣷԐۋٽ قۻşԐ, ۻۙԐ, ٍۙۻڦԐ, ܼͳԐ, ڙü
Ԑˣۋۋڌʽɰ. ۋԓজՙܳۓقۆ३ݓࠗǴڮߕ ۆۻşҼ۹२қपتԜۋѺজॠəʚۻşԐфۻۙ
ԐقԴəۋ͠ॢѺজتԜںěॢɰ. ٍۙۻڦԐ əݓĵۆٍۙۺۍۻşपࢮՏںࠑ܁ॠəѓѪۍʚ, ۋԓজՙܳۓڷͿݓࠗǴقԴڮߕۆζۋԦşó
ʼϸۋقۆ३ۻşपࢮՏۋьԦॠóʼдͿԐÀ
Àɠ३ݕɰ. ܼͳԐşցڹнʪѺজεۋڌॠ϶(ť ۦˣ, 2008), ڙüԐəݓܼ۹ۤڷͿۍ३ڮьʽ
ݓश ڵş ܁ʪε ࠑ܁ॠي Ͽɦࢢॢɰ.
$0
قۆॢНՁѺজ֬Ǵ֬ॹ
ێъۺڷͿݓĵНνԐۙΒəݓॠϔݗۆНՁѺ জقۆॢݓݗĵܓεڮ߸ॠäǣНՁѺজۙߕقʂॢ
܁҃εصşڦ३ۋڌʼ϶, ؒԵۆНՁڹėŕέۋǣ
ڮߕपজʪٮÏڹϔݗۆՁقۆ३Ā܁ʽɰ. Ŕ͠
ǣНνԐۙΒͿҙࢢՁࣷ՚ʪǣۻşۻʪʪˣ
܁ঝॢНՁ܁҃ε؎սەɰČÀ܁ॣݓ͆ʪۋ͠ॢ
НՁ܁҃ͿҙࢢًڷͿݓॠϔݗۆėŕέۋǣڮߕप জʪˣں܁ঝ০ڮ߸ॠşə֖ݓ؍ɰ. ˰͆Դ҃ɰ֪
ȭڹ३Եںڦ३Դə֬Ǵ֬ॹۙΒε॥ƍۋڌॣ
ज़څÀ ەɰ. ০ ۋԓজՙ ݓܼ۹ۤݓ Ͽɦࢢτę
ěʹॠي НνԐ ۙΒͿҙࢢ ۋԓজՙۆ पজʪε
ڮ߸ॠşڦ३ԴəɰتॢঞąںČͲॢ֬Ǵ֬ॹۙΒ Àज़څॣìۋɰ. НνԐۙΒͿҙࢢন˛ÀɠॢН ՁڷͿəнʪ, ʂۙڱ, Ձࣷۻࣷ՚ʪ, ۻşҼ۹२
ˣۋەݓχ, ۋȦЛقԴəۋԓজՙݓܼ۹ۤϿɦ ࢢτق ψۋ টڌʼə ʂशۺۍ ˃Àݓ НՁ(Ձćս
ф ۻşҼ۹२)ق ʂॠي ۋԓজՙۆ पজʪق ˰δ
ѺজتԜں ԕट҆ɰ.
ۋԓজՙÀ۹ΪࠗؒԵۆėŕ՚قܳۓʼϸۋق
˰͆ؒԵۆҙक़ՁέęۻşҼ۹२ˣۋѺॠóʼəʚ, ۋۺڷͿۋ͠ॢѺজəÀ֟χѓ܁֩ę؉࠘ۆѓ܁֩
قۆ३ÁÁϿԐʾսەɰ. À֟χѓ܁֩(Gassmann’s equations)ڹ Ԑؒࠗۋ ۋԓজՙͿ पজʼϸԴ ьԦॠ əԐؒۆҙक़ՁέѺজεशইॠə֩ڷͿ(Gassmann,
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2. (a) Resistivity changes with depth (zone) when supercritical CO2 is injected into the water-saturated Berea sandstone at laboratory, and (b) reduction in velocity and amplitude of first arrive of P-wave and increase of resistivity with elapsed time during the CO2 injection experiment (Xue et al., 2009).
Fig. 3. P-wave velocity and resistivity plotted with CO2
saturation in Nagaoka, Japan (Xue et al., 2009): Blue and red lines indicate theoretical P-wave velocity and resistivity, respectively, and square and triangle symbols denote P-wave velocity and resistivity observed during (unfilled) and after (filled) CO2 injection.
1951) Àۤȇνۋڌʼə֩ۋɰ. À֟χѓ܁֩ق˰
βϸपজʽؒԵۆҙक़Ձέ(Ksat)ڹؒԵۙߕۆҙ क़ Ձέ(K0), ėŕ ՚ق पজʽ ڮߕۆ ҙक़ Ձέ (Kfl),ėŕںप॥ॢؒԵۆҙक़Ձέ(K*),ŔνČė ŕέ(쨵)قۆ३Ā܁ʼ϶(Sodagar and Lawton, 2011), ɰڼę Ïۋ शইʽɰ.
rá rÝâ ć ćr
ij â ćr× ÞÎà ijß
à ćr×Ï rÝ
Þ
Î à ćr×rÝ
ß
(1)ۋѓ܁֩ںࣀ३ۋԓজՙÀݓॠۆڮߕεʂߕॠ ϸԴ ьԦʼə Ѻজε ڮ߸ॣ ս ەɰ. ؉࠘ۆ ѓ܁֩
(Archie’s equation)ڹԐؒقԴۆҼ۹२, ėŕέ, ّս ۆपজʪԐۋۆԜěěćεǣࢍǶ֩ڷͿ(Archie, 1942),
۹ΪࠗڮߕقԴۆҼ۹२(Rw)ę, ّսۆपজʪ(Sw),ؒ Եۆėŕέ(쨵)ں؎ϸۻşҼ۹२Éں߸܁ॣսەڷ
϶, ɰڼę Ïۋ शইʽɰ.
y á ŋà zà y (2)
يşԴmڹؒԵۆİĀۍۙε, nڹपজݓսε, aəԜ սεǣࢍǶɰ. ۋٮÏڹۋ֩˞ںцڷͿۋԓজ
ՙܳۓق˰δPࣷۆ՚ʪфۻşҼ۹२Ѻজεٚ
ࠑॣ ս ەɰ.
Xue et al.(2009)ڹۋԓজՙपজʪقʂॢPࣷ՚
ʪٮҼ۹२Ѻজεঝۍॠşڦ३ߣےćԜۆۋԓ জՙεНͿपজʽѮν؉(Berea) ԐؒقܳۓॠϸԴ
ࣷۆ՚ʪфҼ۹२Éۋر̎óѺজॠəÀεࠑ܁ॠٕ
ɰ. Fig. 2əۋ͠ॢ֬ǴНՁ֬ॹĀęε҃يܵɰ.
Fig. 2aəۋԓজՙܳۓܼǣࢍǣəۻşҼ۹२Ѻ জεʪ֨ॢŔ॒͒ۋɰ. ֬ǴНՁ֨ॹقԐڌʽԐؒ
Ԣ॔ںՃҙқ(Zone 1, Zone 2, Zone 3)ڷͿǣɀرԕ ट҃ϸ, ۋԓজՙəԢ॔ۆцɱҙқۍZone 1قϤ ۹ ܳۓʼؽş ˺Лق Zone 1ҙࢢ Ҽ۹२ۋ ݒÀॠə
ìں؎սەɰ. ̚ॢFig. 2bεԕट҃ϸPࣷ՚ʪÀ
śüॠóÇՙॠɰÀۋԓজՙपজʪÀ20% ۋԜێ
˺Çՙफۋࡾóܶر˜ìںঝۍॣսەɰ. ъϸۻ şҼ۹२ۆąڍۋԓজՙۆपজʪÀȭں˺ʪيۻ ০Ѻজफۋࡾóǣࢍǣ҃ɰлÇॠóۋԓজՙۆ
Ѻজε Çݓॣ ս ەɰ.
̚ॢXue et al.(2009)ڹ֬ǴНՁ֬ॹۙΒۆࢍɾՁ ںêݒॠşڦॠي֬܃ۋԓজՙ۹ۤݓقԴন˛ॢ
֨߸ėêࠗۙΒٮҼİॠٕɰ. Fig. 3ڹۋԓজՙݓ
ܼ۹ۤݓܼॠǣۍǣÀ١ࠢݓًۆ֨߸ėêࠗںࣀ ३صڹ۹ΪࠗۆۻşҼ۹२ęPࣷ՚ʪѺজεǣࢍǶ ɰ. ֨߸ėOB-2ۆ1,116 mۆŪۋقԴPࣷ՚ʪٮۻ şҼ۹२Ѻজεࠑ܁ॠٕɰ. Fig. 3ںԕट҃ϸPࣷ՚
ʪəۋԓজՙۆपজʪÀǰں˺əۋԓজՙεܳ
ۓॠşۻ҃ɰśüॢ՚ʪÇՙε҃ۋݓχ, ܳۓۋć
՚ݕॱʿق˰͆՚ʪÇՙÀࡾݓ؍ڼں؎սەɰ.
ъϸ, ۻşҼ۹२ۆąڍ, ۋԓজՙۆपজʪÀݒÀ
॥ق˰͆ȭڹۻşۻʪՁں̿əّսÀǰڹۻşۻ ʪՁںÀݕۋԓজՙͿ࠘ঞʼϸԴҼ۹२ۋć՚३ ԴݒÀॠəąॳں҃ۍɰ. ˰͆ԴۻşҼ۹२Ԑǣ
ۻۙԐəۋԓজՙܳۓۻęܳۓۆѺজεࠑ܁
ॠəʚۋڌʾսەںӼχ؉ɦ͆, ۋԓজՙܳۓۋ
ݕॱʼرۋԓজՙۆपজʪÀȭڹąڍقʪমęۺ ڷͿۺڌʾսەںìۋɰ. ۋٮÏڹĀęəؘقԴ
ԕट҃ؕʏ֬ǴНՁۙΒٮʪڮԐॠ϶, ۋͿҙࢢۋԓ জՙϿɦࢢτ֨ՁࣷԐфۻşۻۙԐÀԴͿ
ٰ҃ۺڷͿ ۋڌʾ ս ەں ìڷͿ ٚԜʽɰ.
ۋٮÏۋ֬ǴНՁ֬ॹںࣀॠيۋԓজՙܳۓ قۆॢ֬܃ݓॠϔݗۆНՁѺজεҼİۺ܁ঝ০ڮ
߸ॣսەɰ. ֬Ǵ֬ॹڹ֨߸ėêࠗęÏڹѓѪ˞҃
ɰҼڌۋ۹Ͷॠ϶, ইۤقԴন˛ʼəۙΒقҼ३֬
ॹ١ÀۺČćۼقěćػۋ२ԜۦইÀɠॠɰə
ۤ۾ںÀݓČەɰ. ̚ॢۋ͠ॢ֬ǴНՁۙΒəНν
ԐۙΒ३Ե֨ߣş܁҃ͿۋڌʾսەرݓĵН νԐۙΒ३Ե֨ڮڌॣսەɰ. Ŕ͠ǣؓͳۋǣ
ڮߕपজʪˣইۤقԴۆܓæںŔʂͿڮݓॠşÀ
رͲڗąڍق˰͆Դəϔڍࢀ١εڮьॣսʪە ɰ. ˰͆Դ܁ঝॠČ֪ʪȭڹ֬ǴНՁ֬ॹĀęε
صں սەʪ ܳۆε şڐيآ ॣ ìۋɰ.
ۋԓজՙݓܼ۹ۤĶٽԐͻ
ۋԓজՙ ݓܼ۹ۤڹ Ȥβڟۋۆ ֢͆ۋ॒ȃ ݓً
ں֨ۚڷͿۻՃćق200يĖقԴ॒Ϳ܄࣡Àćন, ݕॱܼقەڷ϶, ॳʌψڹتۆۋԓজՙε۹ۤ
ॠəʌࢀőϿۆ॒Ϳ܄࣡Àݕॱʾćনۋɰ. ইۦū ݓݕॱʽ॒Ϳ܄ܼ࣡قԴ9Òۆ॒Ϳ܄࣡قʂ३֬܃
۹ۤݓՁęݓݗĵܓق˰͆ر̅НνԐşѪۋ
ۋڌʼؽəݓεԕट҆ɰ. Table 2əʂशۺۍۋԓজ
ՙݓܼ۹॒ۤͿ܄࣡ۆ܁҃εÂ͜০܁νॠيǣࢍǶ
ìۋɰ.
ݓܼ۹ۤѓ֩ڹ۹ۤėÂۆݜق˰͆ࡾóڮۻ
фÀ֟ۻ, ġҝÀɠॢԵࠗ, ֮ҙّʂսࠗˣՃ
ÀݓͿĵқॣսەɰ. Ϥ۹ڮۻфÀ֟ۻںۋڌॠə
ąڍ, ۋйÒьۋǚǣʌۋԜԐڌॠݓ؍əڮۻق
ۋԓজՙε۹ۤॢɰ. ۋąڍ۹ۤėÂۋ؋܁ۺۋ ČࢀőϿێսەڷ϶, ܳѺݓݗĵܓфНՁ܁҃ε
ۋй؎Čەرڮνॣսەɰ(ڮʴŖˣ, 2007). ̚ॢ
ÒьܼۍڮۻقԴԵڮধսॳԜѪ(EOR)ڷͿۋԓজ
ՙεܳۓॠيԵڮধս͟ںȭۋϸԴʴ֨قۋԓজ
ՙε۹ۤॠşʪॢɰ. ԵڮধսॳԜѪڹǫ؉ەə
ԵڮۆԦԓՁںȭۋşڦ३֨߸ėںࣀ३ۋԓজՙ ǣ Нں ܳۓॠə ѓѪۍʚ, ڟۋѥę Ϳ֟࣡৩(Lost Hills)ݓًقԴۋѓѪںۋڌॠيۋԓজՙε۹ۤ
ॠٕɰ. ˃ѥݫѓѪڹۋԓজՙεԵࠗقܳۓॠ يۋԓজՙε۹ۤ॥ęʴ֨قϭÀ֟ধսڱںȭ ۋəѓѪۍʚ, ۋəܳۓʽۋԓজՙÀԵۆशϸ ق ҤڷϸԴ ϭқۙε ֨ࢅə ڙνق şߣॢɰ.
ۋѓѪڹইۦࠪǣɰ, ێ҆, भ͈˚, Ȑʑ͈˚ˣي͠
ǣ͆قԴ ٍĵʼČ ەڷǣ ؉ݔ ݒϼɳćق ەɰ(ڮʴ Ŗˣ, 2007). ՃѥݫѓѪڷͿə֮ҙۆّʂսࠗق۹
ۤॠəѓѪۋɰ. ێъۺڷͿّʂսࠗڹ३ս҃ɰّқ ȬʪÀʌȭڹّսͿڗݕɰėݗۆؒԵڷͿۻՃ ćʂҙқۆݓًقܕۦॠдͿۋԓজՙ۹ۤںڦॢ
߿қॢėÂں܃ėॣìڷͿथÀʼČەɰ(ڮʴŖˣ, 2007). ইۦݕॱʼČەäǣćনܼۍ॒Ϳ܄࣡ۆʂ ɰսÀ֮ҙّʂսࠗقۋԓজՙε۹ۤॠəѓѪں
࢘ॠČەڷ϶, ʂߕͿّʂսࠗۆԜҙقНۋࣀęॣ
սػəʙÒؒۋܕۦॠي۹ۤʽۋԓজՙÀɰδ
ĖڷͿ ѓʼݓ ؍ʪ φə ًॣں ॢɰ.
Michael et al.(2010)ڹTable 3ęÏۋّʂսࠗ۹ۤ
ݓεԜغۺ(Commercial), ֨ѩ(Demonstration), ֬ ॹ(Pilot) őϿۋͩóՃÀݓͿқΪॠٕɰ. қΪۆܳ
څşܵڹܳۓڌ͟(injection volume)ۋ϶Ճҙşܵڷ ͿܳۓЀۺ, ܳۓέ, ॒Ϳ܄࣡şÂˣںČͲॢɰ. Ϥ ۹ԜغۺőϿəьۻՙˣۆۋԓজՙԦՁڙڷͿҙ ࢢ٣֬À֟εܶۋşڦॢЀۺڷͿ1țق1іχࢻۋ Ԝۆۋԓজՙεܳۓॠə10țۋԜۆۤş॒Ϳ܄
࣡εϊॠ϶, ֢͆ۋ॒ȃ̚əۍԕ͆(In Salah), ڟۋѥ
ݓًۋۋق՚ॢɰ. ֨ѩőϿə1țق1іχࢻйχۆ
ۋԓজՙεܳۓॠ϶, ٍĵٮԜغۺőϿقԴşց
ф ؋ۻՁ êݒں ЀۺڷͿ ॠə ԐغڷͿԴ RCSP (Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership)ۆ 3ɳć (Phase III)Àيşق՚ॢɰ. ֬ॹőϿə1țق1χࢻ
йχۆۋԓজՙεܳۓॠČܳۓۋǣϿɦࢢτşց ۆٍĵф֬ॹںЀۺڷͿսॱʼə॒Ϳ܄࣡εϊॠ
϶, ॒ν١(Frio), ١࣡ڟۋ(Otway), ࡀݕ(Ketzin) ݓًۋ
ۋق ՚ॢɰ.
Table 2. List of representative CO2 storage projects (Torp and Brown, 2004; Brown et al., 2001; Gritto et al., 2004;
Hoversten et al., 2002; Pawar et al., 2006; Cooper et al., 2008; Xue et al., 2006; Kikuta et al., 2005; Duracan et al., 2011; IPCC, 2005; Daley et al., 2008; CO2CRC, 2011; Vidal-Gilbert et al., 2010; Michael et al., 2010; Förster et al., 2006)
Project
Period of Project
Storage type
Scale of project
Avg.
injection rate
Total storage
Number of wells Start
year Inj.
start
Finish
year Injection well Observa-
tion well Etc Sleipner
(Norway) 1996 Ongoing Saline
Aquifer Commercial 2,700 t/day
20 Mt
planned 1 (hori.) - Weyburn
(Canada)
May
2000 Ongoing EOR Commercial
3,000- 5,000 t/day
20 Mt planned
29 (hori. 16.
Vert. 13)
4 (hori.) > 1000 wells
Lost Hills (U.S.A.)
Aug.
2000 - EOR Pilot 3,500,000
m3/day - 4
2 (for cross-
well EM) West Pearl
Queen (U.S.A.)
19 Dec.
2002
2003 Depleted
oil field Pilot 40 t/day 2,090 t
1 (Stivason- Federal #4)
1 (Stivason- Federal #5) Nagaoka
(Japan) 2000 Jul.
2003 2003 Saline
Aquifer Pilot 20-40
t/day 10,400 t 1 (CO2-1) 3 (CO2- 2,3,4) In Salah
(Algeria)
Aug.
2004 Ongoing Saline
Aquifer Commercial
3,000- 4,000 t/day
17 Mt planned
3 (KB-501,
502, 503) 1 (KB-5)
Frio
(U.S.A.) 2002 4-13 Oct.
2004
2004 Saline
Aquifer Demo 177 t/day 1,600 t 1 (new)
1 (existing
well Otway
(Australia)
18 Mar.
2008
Ongoing (stage 2)
Saline
Aquifer Demo 150 t/day
65,445 t (CO2
58,000 t) 1 (CRC-1)
1 (Naylor 1)
1 (Butt-
ress) Ketzin
(Germany) 2004 Jun.
2008 Ongoing Saline
Aquifer Demo 86 t/day 45,000 t 1 2
Table 3. Classification of “scale” for CO2 injecting operations in saline aquifers (Michael et al., 2010)
Scale Purpose Injection rate Life time Example
Pilot Research, testing of injection and
monitoring technology ~10 kt/year Weeks to few years Frio, Nagaoka, Ketzin Demonstration Research, verification of technology and
safety at commercial injection rates ~1 Mt/year > 1 year RCSPa (Phase III) Commercial Reduce greenhouse gas emissions from
stationary industrial CO2 sources > 1 Mt/year > 10 year Sleipner, Snøhvit, In Salah
a RCSP = Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership (US).
Ȥβڟۋ֢͆ۋ॒ȃ(Sleipner)
Ȥβڟۋۆ֢͆ۋ॒ȃݓًڹ1996ț֨ۚʽ߯ߣۆ
ԜغۺőϿۆ۹॒ۤͿ܄࣡Ϳ३۹1,012 m Ūۋ(۹ ΪࠗԜҙͿҙࢢ200 m Ūۋ)قڦ࠘ॢّʂսࠗۍڍ
ࠐ͆ࠗ(the Utsira sand)قۋԓজՙεܳۓॠٕɰ. ݓ
ܼ۹ۤʽۋԓজՙə֢͆ۋ॒ȃÀ֟ۻقԴԦԓʽ
ߎٍÀ֟Ϳҙࢢصرܐڷ϶, ॔͘मԜقԴқνʽۋԓ জՙε॔͘मڷͿҙࢢ2.3 km ̆ر܋ەə֨߸ėں
Fig. 4. Illustration showing CO2 injection operation at Sleipner (Nooner et al., 2007).
Fig. 5. Seismic data imaging the CO2 plume over the years (Arts et al., 2008).
ࣀ३ܳۓॠٕɰ. ॠΘقأ2,700ࢻۆۋԓজՙεܳ
ۓॠي2011țߣūݓأ1,200χࢻÀ͟ۆۋԓজ
ՙε ۹ۤॢ ìڷͿ ؎Ͳ܋ ەɰ(Statoil, 2011).
Fig. 4ə֢͆ۋ॒ȃݓًۆۋԓজՙ۹ۤݓεǣ
ࢍǶϿ֩ʪͿ(Nooner et al., 2007), ۹ۤʂԜࠗۍڍࠐ
͆ࠗڹėŕέ(30-40%)ę࣊ęڱ(1-3 Darcy)ۋϔڍڍ սॢٍأԐؒࠗۋɰ(Arts et al., 2008). ۋࠗڹܳۓ܁
ںşܵڷͿ॰ں˺˃ƍÀ250 m ܁ʪʼ϶३սϸڷ Ϳҙࢢأ800-1,100 m Ūۋقڦ࠘३ەČ, ۹ΪࠗǴ ҙقئڹۋؒۋঊۦʼرەɰ(Arts et al., 2008). ݓĵ Нνêࠗقۆॠϸࠗۆĵқۋঝٍ০ǣࢍǣ϶, 6-7 m
˃ƍۆۋؒۋԐؒࠗԜҙقڦ࠘ॠيّʂսࠗę۹Ϊ
ࠗں қν֨ࢅČ ەɰ(Arts et al., 2008).
ܳۓʽۋԓজՙəےć۾قÀūڏ٣ʪٮؓͳܓ æॠقەɰ. ۍۿॢ֨߸ėقԴࠑ܁ॢ٣ʪقġً٣ ʪĵѕε ۺڌॠي߸܁ʽ ٣ʪə 41±1G ܁ʪٕڷ϶,
֨߸ėǴؓͳڹ8-11 MPaͿ ߸܁ʼؽɰ(Arts et al., 2008). ۋԓজՙܳۓ֨1.5-2%ۆϭęИäڏ
জսՙÀ॥ƍܳۓʼؽڷдͿۋͿۍ३ܳۓʽۋԓজ
ՙۆнʪٮսڌՁقѺজÀԦĄںìڷͿٚࠑʼ
϶, ս࠘ϿʝτĀęۋԓজՙۆێҙÀşߕԜێ
սەڷǣʂҙқڹߣےćԜێìڷͿٚࠑʽɰ(Arts et al., 2008).
ܳۓقəɰتॢϿɦࢢτşѪۋۋڌʼؽəʚ, ০֢͆ۋ॒ȃقԴۆ֨ÂąęՁࣷԐəܳۓ
ۋԓজՙۆäʴں۞҃يܵɰ(Chadwick et al., 2006).
3DՁࣷԐəۋԓজՙܳۓۻۍ1994țęܳۓ
ۍ1999, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2006țقսॱʼؽČ, ɾ
֨ɀۺܳۓ͟ڹÁÁ2.30, 4.20, 4.97, 6.84, 8.4іχ
ࢻۋɰ(Arts et al., 2008). Fig. 5ə֨ÂąęՁࣷϿ ɦࢢτ Āęε ҃يܳČ ەڷ϶, ۋԓজՙ ܳۓڷͿ
ۍ३(1) ÌॢڼۆՁࣷݕफ(ϼ۾; bright spot), (2) Ձࣷ֨ÂɳϸقԴۆࠗ˃ƍѺজ(tuning thickness), (3)
Ձࣷ՚ʪÇՙͿۍॢ֨Âݓٍ(velocity pushdown) ˣۆ Ѻজε ঝۍॣս ەɰ(Arts et al., 2004; 2008).
֨ÂąęՁࣷԐۋٽق֨ÂąęܼͳԐε
սॱॠٕəʚ, Fig. 6aقԴ҃əцٮÏۋܳۓ܁ںÀ Ϳݓβə7.3 km ţۋۆWNW-ESE ࠑԸԜۆ20Òۆ
ࠑ۾ę 2002țۆ ۋԓজՙ ߹ۺ ѩڦε प॥ॠʪ
Ժ܁ʽ10Òࠑ۾ںप॥ॢߪ30Òۆࠑ۾قԴԐε
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6. (a) The benchmark locations for gravity data acquisition to monitor injected CO2 bubble, and (b) observed time- lapse gravity data and predicted gravity data for high- and low-temperature reservoir models (Nooner et al., 2007).
Fig. 7. Monitoring techniques used in the IEA GHG Weyburn-Midale CO2 monitoring and storage project (Whittaker et al., 2011).
սॱॠٕɰ(Nooner et al., 2007). Ԑə2002țę2005 ț˃ѥսॱʼؽڷ϶2002țşܵԐɾ֨ۆɀۺܳ
ۓ͟ڹ2.57іχࢻ, 2005țۆϿɦࢢԐɾ֨ۆɀۺ
ܳۓ͟ڹ7.76іχࢻۋɰ(Arts et al., 2008). Fig. 6bə
Áࠑ۾قԴصرݕܼͳۋԜčԸں҃يܵɰ. ܼͳۋ ԜčԸقԴ ҃ϸ 2,0003,000 mقԴ ܼͳ Éۋ ǰó
ǣࢍǫں؎սەڷ϶, ۋəۋԓজՙܳۓڷͿۍ३
нʪÀ Çՙ॰ڼں ǣࢍǶɰ.
ڟۋѥ(Weyburn)
2000țĶ܃قȃݓşĵ(IEA)قۆ३֨ۚʽࠪǣɰۆ
ڟۋѥ-йʚێ(Weyburn-Midale) ۋԓজՙϿɦࢢτф
۹॒ۤͿ܄࣡قԴəݓॠ1,450 m Ūۋۆ۹ΪࠗقԵ ڮধսॳԜѪڷͿۋԓজՙεܳۓॠٕɰ. ڟۋѥę
йʚێ˃ݓًق2010ț6ښūݓÁÁ1,610χࢻ, 211 χ ࢻۆ ۋԓজՙÀ ۹ۤʼؽɰ. ڟۋѥ ݓًقԴə
ॠΘقأ13,000ࢻۆܳۓέͿ1țق240χࢻ, йʚێ
ݓًڹॠΘق1,650ࢻۆܳۓέͿ1țق46χࢻۆۋ ԓজՙεܳۓॠٕڷ϶, 2005țҙࢢݕॱʽ߯ܛɳć (final phase)قԴəࠑ܁фϿɦࢢτ, êݒˣۋսॱʼ ؽɰ(Whittaker et al., 2011).
ɰδ॒Ϳ܄࣡˞ۋێъۺڷͿԐؒࠗقۋԓজՙε
۹ۤॠəìęɵνڟۋѥęйʚێݓًڹࣷթϸۋە əԓّݓࠗں۹ۤݓͿԐڌॠٕɰ. ڟۋѥęйʚێ
Fig. 8. Time-lapse amplitude difference maps observed at the reservoir level. Black and green spots indicate production and CO2 injection wells, respectively (White, 2009).
Fig. 9. Time-lapse traveltime difference maps obtained for a subreservoir horizon. Traveltime anomalies are due to wave propagation through the reservoir (White, 2009).
Fig. 10. Locations of wells in the Lost Hills field. Four water injection wells (green) were used for CO2 injection in September 2000. The crosswell experiments were conducted between observation wells OB-C1 and OB-C2 (red) (Hoversten et al., 2002).
ݓًۆ۹ΪࠗڹئڹܓÂʂݓًقەəԓّ-ݒь
ۛΪؒۆ ࣅۺڷͿ Ձʽ й֨֨क़ş(Mississippian)ۆ
֟ࠗ(Charles formation)ڷͿйʚێࠗ(the Midale Beds)
؋قܕۦॢɰ(Whittaker et al., 2004). йʚێࠗۆǴҙ ə˃ÒۆࠗڷͿĵՁʼرەəʚ, ؉͒ޅۆԵধؒ
(limestone)ࠗۍѣş(the Vuggy)ࠗęڦޅۆʮͿ֟ࢻ (dolostone)ࠗۍυν(Marly)ࠗڷͿۋΘر܋ەɰ. ѣş
ࠗڹɰتॢѩڦۆėŕέ(8-20%)ę࣊ęڱ(10>300 md)ںÀݓČەČ, υνࠗڹ16-38%ۆėŕέę1ق Դ50 md ۋԜۆѩڦۆ࣊ęڱںǣࢍǶɰ(Whittaker et al., 2004). ۹Ϊࠗڹ2-11 m ˃ƍۆܓнॢąԵČࠗ
ۍйʚێݒьؒ(the Midale evaporite)ڷͿʙيەɰ (Whittaker et al., 2011). ڟۋѥݓًۆ۹Ϊࠗڹأ
1,450 m Ūۋق30 m ˃ƍۆئڹࣷթϸۋەəԓ
ّĵܓͿ(White, 2009), थŒ۹Ϊࠗؓͳڹ16.5 MPa ۋɰ(Elsayed et al., 1993).
ڟۋѥ-йʚێݓًقԴəFig. 7قԴ҃əцٮÏۋɰ تॢϿɦࢢτşѪںۺڌॠٕɰ(Whittaker et al., 2011).
ݓĵНνԐѪڷͿə֨Âąę3D ՁࣷԐεۋڌ ॠٕəʚ, 1999țقşܵԐ(baseline survey)εߌڼ ڷͿսॱॠٕČ, 2001ț, 2002ț, 2004ț, 2007țقϿ ɦࢢԐ(monitor survey)εսॱॠٕɰ. Fig. 8ڹ֨Â
ąęՁࣷԐͿঝۍʽՁࣷݕफѺজεǣࢍǶ
Ŕρۋɰ. ۹ΪࠗŖߌقԴйأॠݓχڼۆݕफѺজ Àǣࢍǣəìں҇սەəʚۋəۋԓজՙܳۓę
ԵڮԦԓڷͿۍॢٖॳۋɰ. Fig. 9ə֨Âق˰δۻ
ࣷ֨Âݓٍ(traveltime delay)ںݓًق˰͆ʪ֨ॢۙ
Βۍʚ, ݕफѺজقҼ३ŔѺজ܁ʪÀۚڹìں؎
սەɰ. ̚ॢҚޅۆսݔ܁قҼ३ʌψڹۋԓজՙ ÀܳۓʼؽڼقʪҝĵॠČՁࣷۋԜ(anomaly) ܁ ʪÀʌۺóǣࢍǣəʚ, ۋəԜʂۺڷͿۋݓًۆप জʪÀǰČܳۓʽۋԓজՙۆʂҙқۋѣşࠗقܕ ۦॠş ˺Лۍ ìڷͿ ߸܁ʽɰ(White, 2009).
Ϳ֟࣡৩(Lost Hills)
Ϳ֟࣡৩ࣷێ॒ͦͿŔ͖ڹйĶقȃݓҙ(DOE)ۆ࣊
ۙͿ֨ۚʽ॒Ϳ܄࣡ͿԵڮধսॳԜѪںۋڌॠيۋ ԓজՙεܳۓॠٕɰ. 2000ț 8ښҙࢢ 350χ m3/day ۆҼڱͿۋԓজՙεܳۓॠş֨ۚॠي2002țقə
1,200χm3/dayۆҼڱͿܳۓॠٕɰ(Gritto et al., 2004).
Fig. 10ڹͿ֟࣡৩ݓًۆ4Òۆܳۓ܁ęܳѺۆԵڮ
Ԧԓ܁ۆڦ࠘ε҃يܳ϶, OB-C1ęOB-C2ڹěࠑ܁
ڷͿ֨߸ėۻۙԐ(crosswell EM)εڦ३֨߸ʼؽ
Fig. 12. Gamma ray, density, neutron porosity logs in the Stivason Federal #1 and #4 well (Wells et al., 2007).
Fig. 11. Time-lapse changes in (a) S-wave velocity, (b) P-wave velocity, and (c) electrical conductivity: Black horizontal lines indicate the major unit boundaries, vertical blue lines denote the estimated location of previous water injection fractures, vertical green lines show the estimated location of the CO2 injection fractures, magenta dots represent the perforation intervals for CO2 injection, and red diagonal lines mean the mapped location of fault zones (Hoversten et al., 2002).
ɰ(Hoversten et al., 2002).
۹Ϊࠗڹأ425-640 mۆŪۋقڦ࠘ॢथŒ800 ft
˃ƍۆ őܓࢹՁ ۋؒ(diatomaceous mudstone)ڷͿ(ť ৠܵˣ, 2005), ėŕࡾşÀۚČ(< 5 υۋࡾ) ėŕέ ڹȭڷ϶(45-70%), ࣊ęڱۋǰɰ(< 1 md)(Perri et al., 2000; Gritto et al., 2004). ěࠑ܁Ԑۋقڦ࠘ॢܳۓ܁
ڹ࣊ęՁںȭۋşڦ३սؓࣷթʼؽɰ(Gritto et al., 2004). 2002țɾ֨ܳۓؓͳڹ5.5-6.2 MPa, ۹Ϊࠗ
٣ʪə41ͿۋԓজՙÀşߕԜͿܕۦॣսە ə ܓæۋɰ(Gritto et al., 2004).
Ͽɦࢢτں ڦॢ şܵԐͿ ۋԓজՙ ܳۓ ۻۍ
2000ț9ښق֨߸ė-֨߸ėՁࣷԐфۻۙԐε
սॱॠٕČ, ˃ѥݫۻۙԐÀ2001ț4ښܼտق, ˃
ѥݫՁࣷԐə2001ț5ښقսॱʼؽɰ. Fig. 11ڹ
ԐۙΒۆًԓ३Եںࣀ३صڹPࣷфSࣷ՚ʪٮۻ şۻʪʪۆ Ѻজ تԜں ҃يܵɰ(Hoversten et al., 2002). EMۙΒًԓۆߣş܁҃Ϳ2001ț1ښق˃ě ࠑ܁قԴ صڹ ۻşҼ۹२ êࠗۙΒÀ ۋڌʼؽڷ϶
(Hoversten et al., 2002), ۻۙԐۋйݓͿҙࢢՁࣷ
ًԓںڦॢPࣷ՚ʪۆߣş՚ʪϿʝںսςॠٕČ, P
ࣷۆߣş՚ʪͿҙࢢSࣷۆߣş՚ʪϿʝںĵॠٕɰ (Hoversten et al., 2002). Fig. 11قԴşܕۆНۆܳۓ ڷͿۍ३ɳࠗڬҙқقԴPࣷ՚ʪəÇՙॠəъϸ
ɳࠗęěʹʼرۻşۻʪʪÀäۆѺॠݓ؍əìڷͿ
҃؉НपজʪقəࢀѺজÀػڷǣɳࠗݓًں˰͆
ؓͳѺজÀԦĄɰəìں؎սەɰ(Hoversten et al., 2002).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 13. (a) GPR profile obtained at a distance of 275 m northwest from the injection well, and (b) thickness of Caliche computed with an interval velocity of 0.15 m/ns (Wilson et al., 2005).
ڟ֟࣡ऑࡴ(West Pearl Queen)
йĶɑϮ֨ࡑǫʴҙۆڟ֟࣡ऑࡴ(West Pearl Queen) ۋԓজՙݓܼ۹ۤࣷێͦࢬ֟࣡قԴə2002ț12ښ ҙࢢ2003ț2ښūݓأ50ێʴ؋أ1,370 m Ūۋق
Ȯۍगζş(Permian)ۆࡴࠗ(Queen formation) ێҙق
2,090ࢻۆۋԓজՙεܳۓॠٕɰ(Cooper et al., 2008).
ڟ֟࣡ऑࡴݓًقə77Òۆ۹Ϊࠗۋەرأ20ز
ѕͣۆԵڮÀԦԓʽцەɰ. Fig. 12əۋݓًقԴ
صڹ֨߸ėԐۙΒε҃يܵɰ. Fig. 12قԴȤ͈ԟڷ Ϳश֨ʽҙқۋ۹ΪؒںǣࢍǴəʚ, ۹Ϊؒڹ˃ƍ
Àأ15 mۍԐؒࠗڷͿࡴࠗۆϖڦقڦ࠘३ەڷ
϶, ʮͿυۋ࣡ٮՕێͿʙيەɰ(Wells et al., 2007).
۹Ϊࠗڹ֨ϯࣶۋ܃ʂͿʼرەݓ؍ڷ϶ԵڮÀԶي ەəԐؒڷͿ15-20%ۆėŕέę200 md ۋԜۆ࣊ę ڱں ǣࢍǶɰ(Westrich et al., 2002). ࠗԴॡۺڷͿə
ʮͿυۋ࣡, ֬࣡֟ࢻ, ՕێͿĵՁʼČ, ˃ƍÀ213 m, थŒнʪÀ2.74 g/cm3ۍՃҷνѣࠗ(Seven Rivers formation)ۋࡴࠗڦقȮيەɰ(Wells et al., 2007).
ۋݓًقԴəܳۓ܁ڷͿҙࢢʴޅڷͿ400 m ̆ر
܋ڦ࠘३ەəěࠑ܁قԴսݔՁࣷԐεսॱॠٕ
ɰ. ̚ॢܳۓ܁ܳѺأ10 kmۆԐࠑԸقʂ३100 mÂüڷͿݓशͪۋʌԐ(ground penetration radar) εսॱॠٕɰ(Van Dam et al., 2005; Wilson et al., 2005).
ѓԐڷͿ250 MHzۆ؋ࢬǣεۋڌॠيսॱॠٕɰ.
ݓशͪۋʌԐəࠥν࠘(the Mescalero caliche) ࠗۆ
˃ƍε߸܁ॠČۋԓজՙۆսݔۋʴࣀͿε؎؉Ǵ şڦॢЀۺڷͿսॱʼؽɰ. Fig. 13ڹݓशͪۋʌ
Ԑɳϸęۋε३Եॠيصڹتѓॳٖܳ֨Ԝں҃ي
ܵɰ. Fig. 13aقԴǣࢍǣəÌॢъԐϸڹݓशŖߌۆ
ࠥν࠘ ࠗقԴ ъԐʽ ìڷͿ ߸܁ʼ϶, Ǵҙ ՚ʪε
0.15 m/nsͿÀ܁ॠϸࠥν࠘ࠗۆ˃ƍə0-4 ftͿ߸܁
ʽɰ(Wilson et al., 2005).
ǣÀ١ࠢ(Nagaoka)
ێ҆ۆǣÀ١ࠢݓًڹݓĵঞąԓغşցٍĵşě(RITE:
the Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth) ęلݓɦرτঊধ(ENAA: the Engineering Advancement Association of Japan)قۆ३2003ț7ښҙࢢ2005ț1 ښūݓսॱʽ֬ॹőϿۆ॒Ϳ܄࣡ͿॠΘق20-40ࢻ
ߪأ10,400ࢻۆۋԓজՙÀ۹ۤʼؽɰ(Xue et al., 2006). ۹ۤقԐڌʽۋԓজՙəۍėۺڷͿχ
˞رܐڷ϶ 99.9%ۆ ȬʪεÍəɰ(Xue et al., 2006).
ǣÀ١ࠢݓًقə1Òۆܳۓ܁(IW-1)ę3Òۆěࠑ
܁(OB-2, OB-3, OB-4)ۋەڷ϶, 3Òۆěࠑ܁˞ڹܳ
ۓ܁ڷͿҙࢢÁÁԴͿɰδäνقڦ࠘३ەرۋԓ জՙۆäʴںɳćۺڷͿěॠəʚۋڌʼؽɰ(Fig. 14).
ěࠑ܁OB-2əܳۓ܁IW-1ͿҙࢢॠॳąԐѓॳڷͿ
40 m ̆ر܋ەرܳۓʽۋԓজՙۆۋʴę߹ۺں
Çݓॠəʚۋڌʼؽɰ. ̚ॢ, ěࠑ܁OB-2ٮԜॳąԐ
ޅقڦ࠘ॢɰδ˃Òۆěࠑ܁(OB-3ٮOB-4)ںۋڌ ॠي ֨߸ė êࠗę ֨߸ė-֨߸ė Ձࣷ ࢹϿŔ͒क़ (crosswell seismic tomography)εսॱ॥ڷͿ׆ܳۓʽ
ۋԓজՙۆқपεϿɦࢢॠٕɰ(Mito et al., 2008).
۹ۤݓə1,100 m Ūۋقڦ࠘ॢߣşচۺՃॠۋ
ϭ(the Haizume Formation) Ԑؒࠗۋ϶, êࠗĀęق˰
(a) (b)
Fig. 14. (a) Layout of the injection well (IW-1) and observation wells (OB-2, -3, -4), and (b) well locations at the top layer of the Zone 2 (Mito et al., 2008).
(a) BLS (b) MSI (c) MS2
Fig. 15. Velocity sections obtained by seismic tomography for (a) BLS, (b) MS1, and (c) MS2 (Saito et al., 2006).
βϸ۹Ϊࠗڹ60 m ˃ƍͿZone 1قԴZone 5ūݓ5 ÒۆݓًڷͿǣɌرݕɰ(Xue et al., 2006). ۋܼÀۤ
࣊ęՁۋڍսॢ(ėŕέ22.5%, ࣊ęڱ6-10 md) 12 m
˃ƍۆ Zone 2εʂԜࠗڷͿ Ժ܁ॠٕɰ(Mito et al., 2008). ʙÒؒڹ130-150 m ˃ƍۆۋؒࠗۋ϶, ّʂս
ࠗęʙÒؒϿ˃ܳۓ܁قԴʴǫޅѓॳڷͿ15ʪş ڐر܋ەɰ(Kikuta et al., 2005). OB-4قԴۆߣş۹ Ϊࠗۆ٣ʪə48, ؓͳڹ10.8 MPaۋؽڷ϶ܳۓʽ
ۋԓজՙəߣےćԜͿܕۦॢɰ(Xue et al., 2006).
ϿɦࢢτşѪڷͿəՁࣷࢹϿŔ͒क़, ݓĵНνê
ࠗ, ؓͳ٣ʪࠑ܁, йՙݕʴϿɦࢢτˣںۋڌॠٕ
ɰ. Ϥ۹ՁࣷࢹϿŔ͒क़əşܵԐ(BLS)ε2003 ț2ښقսॱॠٕČ, ۋԓজՙÀܳۓʽۋۍ2004 ț1ښ(MS1)ę2004ț7ښ(MS2) ˃ѥقèߝϿɦࢢ
Ԑεսॱॠٕɰ. Fig. 15əǣÀ١ࠢقԴսॱʽ
ՁࣷࢹϿŔ͒क़ԐĀęεǣࢍǴəʚFig. 15aəş
ܵԐ, Fig. 15bəMS1ۆۙΒͿ3,200ࢻۆۋԓজ
ՙÀܳۓʼؽں˺, Fig. 15cəMS2ۆۙΒͿ6,200ࢻ
ܳۓ॰ں˺ۆՁࣷࢹϿŔ͒क़ۙΒεǣࢍǴČەɰ (Saito et al., 2006). ڼࣷêࠗںࣀ३Դّʂսࠗۆڬҙ қق࣊ęՁۋȭČئڹԐؒࠗڷͿ߸܁ʼəҼİۺ
՚ʪÀȭڹࠗۋьþʼؽڷǣ, ࠗۆ˃ƍÀȃИئ؉
ՁࣷࢹϿŔ͒क़ۙΒقԴəۋࠗقۆॢ՚ʪѺজ À۞ǣࢍǣݓ؍əɰ(Saito et al., 2006). ՚ʪѺজε
ϼঝॠó҃şڦ३Fig. 16ęÏۋ՚ʪۋεǣࢍǴ əɳϸںʪ֨ॠٕəʚ, ߯ʂ՚ʪÇՙəMS1قԴ
3.0%, MS2قԴ3.5%ͿǣࢍǮڷ϶, ۋεࣀ३ّʂս
ࠗقқपॠəۋԓজՙقۆ३՚ʪÀÇՙॠəݓً
ں ঝۍॣ ս ەؽɰ(Saito et al., 2006).
Нνêࠗ(geophysical logging)ڷͿəۻۙşڮʪêࠗ, ӆ̿ÇυԸêࠗ(spectral gamma logging), ܼՁۙêࠗ, ڼࣷêࠗں2ܳقԴ1ɵʴ؋OB-2, OB-3, OB-4 ěࠑ܁
(a) MSI (b) MS2
Fig. 16. Velocity difference tomograms generated from Fig. 15 (Saito et al., 2006).
Table 4. Geophysical logging results in OB-2 well (Kikuta et al., 2005)
Item Results
Resistivity Medium Induction Increase 0.6 to 0.7 Ohmm
Deep induction Increase 0.3 to 0.4 Ohmm
Neutron Decrease 0.3%
P-wave velocity Decrease 0.6 km/sec (25%)
S-wave velocity No change
قԴսॱॠٕɰ. ܳۓ܁ڷͿҙࢢÀۤÀūڏOB-2قԴ
2004ț 3ښ 10ێق ܳЀॣχॢ ѺজÀ şʼؽəʚ, ŔĀęÀ Table 4ق श֨ʼر ەɰ. OB-2قԴPࣷۆ
՚ʪəÇՙॢъϸ, Sࣷۆ՚ʪəɂق̺óѺॠݓ؍
ؕɰə۾ڷͿҙࢢۋəݓॠقܳۓʽۋԓজՙͿۍ
ॢٖॳےں ؎ սەɰ(Kikuta et al., 2005).
ؓͳ٣ʪࠑ܁قԴʪܳۓۋقOB-4 ěࠑ܁قԴ
أ6%ۆėŕؓۋݒÀ॰ɰČ؎Ͳݕцەɰ(Kikuta et al., 2005). ̚ॢ֨߸ėϥ࣯ȇॠۋ˚Ϳब(down-hole multi-channel hydrophone)ںۋڌॠيOB-2قԴйՙ ݕʴϿɦࢢτۋսॱʼؽڷǣ, ۋԓজՙܳۓęěʹ ʽইԜڹ ěࠑʼݓ ؍ؕɰ(Kikuta et al., 2005).
ۍԕ͆(In Salah)
؎܃νۆۍԕ॒͆Ϳ܄࣡ə2004țBPٮѰߝԐ(BP and its joint venture partner, Sonatrach ˣ)ۆ࣊ۙͿ֨
ۚʽԜغۺőϿۆʂőϿۋԓজՙݓܼ۹॒ۤͿ܄
࣡ۋɰ(Ringrose et al., 2009). ܳۓέڹॠΘقأ3,500 ࢻڷͿ1țقأ1іχࢻÀ͟ۆۋԓজՙεܳۓॠ Čەڷ϶, 2008țϊūݓ250χࢻÀ͟ںܳۓॢìڷ Ϳ؎Ͳ܋ ەɰ(Ringrose et al., 2009). ۋ॒Ϳ܄࣡ə
ψڹتۆۋԓজՙε۹Ϊࠗق۹ۤ॰ں˺ǣࢍǣə
۹ΪࠗۆՁѺজٮϿɦࢢτşѪںٍĵॠşڦ३ս ॱʼؽɰ. ܳۓʽۋԓজՙəࡾͪцÀ֟ۻقԴԦԓ ʽÀ֟قप॥ʽ5-10%ۆۋԓজՙεқν֨ࡈǶì ڷͿ1țقأ1іχࢻ܁ʪÀʽɰ. қνʽۋԓজ
ՙəؓ߹, սՙজę܁ںäࠚأ14 km ̆رݕ
Ėق ڦ࠘ॢ 3Òۆ սथ ܳۓ܁ں ࣀ३ ܳۓʼؽڷ϶, ۹ۤڦ࠘əݓॠأ1,880 m Ūۋقڦ࠘ॢ˃ƍ20-25 mۆࣷթϸۋەəԵşԐؒࠗۋɰ(C10.2)(Durucan et al., 2011). ۋԐؒࠗۆėŕέڹ11-20%, ࣊ęڱڹ
10 mdͿ࣊ęՁۋǰɰ(Mathieson et al., 2009). ۋࠗ
ڹ20 m ˃ƍۆܓнॢԐؒę֬࣡֟ࢻࠗ(C10.3)ڷͿ
ʙيەČ(Fig. 17), Ŕڦޅڹأ950 m ˃ƍۆԵş ۆۋؒࠗ(C20)قۆ३दʼرەɰ(Ringrose et al., 2009). ۋۋؒࠗۆ؉͒ޅҙқقࣷթʽ֬࣡Օێۋ
ܕۦॠيࣷթĵܓεÍəìڷͿ؎Ͳ܋ەɰ(Durucan et al., 2011).
Fig. 18ڹۍԕ॒͆Ϳ܄࣡قԴəϿɦࢢτقۋڌʽ
şѪ˞ں҃يܵɰ. ݓĵНνԐͿəşܕۆԵڮԓغ قԴটь০Ԑڌʼر٣֨߸ėêࠗ, ࡑرԢ॔τ, 3D
ՁࣷԐÀۋڌʼؽڷ϶, 2009ț֨߸ėǴقݓ١ बݓş֟࣡τںȏرйՙݓݕںěࠑॠٕČ, ֨Â
ąę3D ՁࣷԐεսॱॠيपজʪфؓͳѺজε
(a) (b)
Fig. 17. (a) Krechba stratigraphy, and (b) locations of the three CO2 injection wells (KB501, KB502 and KB503) and the five production wells (KB-11, KB-12, KB-13, KB-14 and KB-15) (Durucan et al., 2011).
Fig. 18. Monitoring methods used in In Salah (Ringrose et al., 2009).
Ͽɦࢢ ॠٕɰ(Ringrose et al., 2009).
̚ॢڦՁۙΒ(satellite airborne radar interferometry)ε
ۋڌॠيۋԓজՙܳۓڷͿۍॢݓशϸڵş܁ʪε
Çݓॣսەؽəʚ, ڦՁۙΒəɰδԐقҼ३Ԝʂ ۺڷͿҼڌۋۺó˞϶ۙΒন˛ۋ֖ɰəۤ۾ۋەɰ (Myer, 2011). ০Č܁ԓ͈ߕÂԾ०ՁÒĵͪۋʌ (PSInSAR: permanent scatterer interferometry synthesized aperture radar)əێʹۆͪۋɰۋйݓԐۋقێرǦ
ڦԜѺজεʪ֨ॠ϶ʂşՙڼˣۆমęεŕ҄ॣս
ەرأ5 mm/year ܁ʪ, ۤşÂथŒÉقʂ३Դə1 mm/yearūݓۆ܁ঝʪεǣࢍǶɰ(Ringrose et al., 2009).
ۋşѪںۋڌॠيۍԕ͆ݓًںϿɦࢢॢĀę, ՃÒ ۆܳۓ܁ŖߌقԴϿ˃ݓशϸڵşÀێرǮںӼχ
؉ɦ͆À֟ԦԓݓًܳѺقԴəݓъࠞॠÀێرǦ
ìںěॣսەؽɰ(Ringrose et al., 2009). Fig. 19ə
2003ț12ښҙࢢ2007ț3ښūݓۍԕ͆ݓًقԴصڹ
ߒѥݫČ܁ԓ͈ߕÂԾ०ՁÒĵͪۋʌۆۙΒܼॠ ǣεǣࢍǶìڷͿ, ۋۙΒεࣀ३ۋԓজՙܳۓڷͿ
ۍ३1țقأ5 mm ܁ʪۆݓъڵşÀێرǮڼں؎
սەɰ. Ӽχ؉ɦ͆Onuma and Ohkawa(2008)əқÂ ԾşѪ(DInSAR: differential interferometry synthesized aperture radar)ںۋڌॠيۍԕ͆ݓًقʂॢݓशѺ
Table 5. Monitoring technologies at Kreachba (Mathieson et al., 2011)
Monitoring technology Risk to Monitor Action/Status
Repeat 3D seismic
Plume migration Subsurface characterization
Initial survey in 1997
High Resolution Repeat 3D survey acquired in 2009
Being interpreted at present
May show some time lapse (4D) effects
Microseismic Caprock integrity 500 m test well drilled and recording information above KB502 encouraging results to date
InSAR monitoring
Plume migration Caprock integrity Pressure Development
Images captured using X-band (8 days) and C-band (32 days)
Use to develop time lapse deformation images
Tiltmeters/GPS
Plume migration Caprock integrity Pressure Development
2011
Use to calibrate satellite data
Shallow aquifer wells
Caprock integrity Potable aquifer contamination
and one between KB5 and KB502
Two sampling programmes to date Wellhead/annulus
samples
Wellbore integrity
Plume migration 2 monthly sampling since 2005
Tracers Plume migration Different perflourocarbon tracers into each injector
Implemented 2006 Surface Flux/Soil Gas Surface seepage Initial survey pre-injection
Two surveys in 2009 around key risk wells Microbiology Surface seepage First samples collected in late 2009/early 2010
Wireline Logging/sampling
Subsurface characterization
Overburden samples and logs in new
Geomechanical and geochemical modeling
Fig. 19. PSInSAR velocity map (Envisat) obtained over the In Salah area from December 2003 to March 2007 (Ringrose et al., 2009).
ۙΒε صڹ цەɰ(Ringrose et al., 2009).
Mathieson et al.(2011)ڹইۦࡾͪцݓًقԴۋԓ
জՙϿɦࢢτقԐڌʼČەəşցںTable 5ٮÏ ۋ ܁νॠٕɰ.
॒ν١(Frio)
йĶۆ॒ν١ݓًڹйĶقȃݓҙ(DOE: Department of Energy)ٮĶ܃قȃݓşցٍĵՙ(NETL: The National Energy Technology Laboratory)ۆ࣊ۙقۆ३֨ۚʽ
ۚڹőϿۆࣷێͦࢬ֟࣡۹ۤݓͿ2004țَقèߝ
1,600ࢻۆۋԓজՙε॒ν١C ݓࠗڦޅقܳۓॠ
ٕɰ(Hovorka et al., 2005). ܳۓݓًڹϮ֨ࡑχ॒ν ١ԐؒࠗݓًۆێҙͿŖߌقԵڮԦԓݓًۋەڷ
϶ۋйܕۦॠəěࠑ܁قԴ30 m ̆رݕĖقۋԓজ
ՙܳۓںڦॢ֨߸ėںԞͿ֨߸ॠٕɰ(Majer et al., 2006). Fig. 20ڹ ܳۓ܁ęěࠑ܁ۆ ڦ࠘ε҃يܵɰ.
۹ۤݓə॒ν١CࠗڷͿ1,528.5-1,534.7 m Ūۋقڦ
࠘ॢ22.8 m ˃ƍۆԐؒࠗۋɰ(Daley et al., 2008). ॒ν ١ CࠗǴۆڬҙқڹ30-35%ۆėŕέę2,000-2,500 mdۆ࣊ęՁںÀݓČەڷ϶, CࠗцͿԜҙقəՕێ,
Fig. 20. Map showing the locations of the injection and monitoring well (blue) and the VSP offsets (Majer et al., 2006).
Fig. 21. Time-lapse images obtained by VSP (Majer et al., 2006).
Fig. 22. P- and S-wave velocity change tomograms obtained by seismic crosswell tomography (Majer et al., 2006).
Ԡ˚, ֬࣡֟ࢻڷͿĵՁʽࠗۋܕۦॠ϶, ۋəġًۺ ڷͿқपॠČەə؉ǣڍ؊Օێ(Anahuac shale)ę॥
ƍۋԓজՙۆսݔѓॳڮʴںφəܳڅۤѹًॣ
ںॠəìڷͿ؎Ͳ܋ەɰ(Majer et al., 2006). ̚ॢ
êࠗۙΒфՁࣷԐۙΒəࢬ֟࣡۹ۤݓۆ॒ν ١ࠗڦޅۋŖߌقܕۦॠəّؒʱقۆ३Ձʽѓ Ԑɳࠗ֨֟ࢰǴقەڼں҃يܵɰ(Daley et al., 2008).
ݓĵНνϿɦࢢτşѪڷͿə֨Âąę֨߸ėՁ
ࣷԐ(time-lapse borehole seismic survey), սݔՁ
ࣷԐ(VSP: vertical seismic profiling), Нνêࠗ, ֨߸
ėۻۙԐˣۋԐڌʼؽɰ(Hovorka et al., 2005). ۋ
ܼقԴ սݔ ՁࣷԐٮ ֨߸ė-֨߸ė Ԑε ܳͿ
ۋڌॠٕəʚ, ˃ԐϿ˃80 ͪѲۆ3Ձқݓ١ब֟
࣡τںԐڌॠيսॱʼؽڷ϶, ܶͿٍĀʽսݔՁ
ࣷԐՅԴÀ7.6 m ÂüڷͿѕ࠘ʼرߪ610 mۆѩ ڦεԐॣսەʪԺćʼؽɰ(Daley et al., 2008).
սݔՁࣷԐۙΒͿҙࢢ۹ΪࠗقԴъԐʽսथъ ԐۋѰ࣡˞ۆݕफѺজÀ۞ǣࢍǨսەʪۙΒߌ νεսॱॠٕڷ϶, Fig. 21ڹ1ѥݓ۾قԴۆսݔ
ՁࣷԐۙΒߌνۆĀęε҃يܳəʚ, ۋԓজՙ
ܳۓ1ѥݓ۾قԴъԐÌʪÀঝٍॠóݒÀ॰ڼں
؎սەɰ(Majer et al., 2006). ̚ॢ1ѥݓ۾Ӽχ؉ɦ
͆ 2, 3, 4ѥ ݓ۾قԴʪ ڮԐॢ Āęε صؽɰ.
֨߸ėՁࣷԐقԴə70-350 Hz ݕʴս(frequency) ʂًۆՁࣷԢ(source)ں1.5 m ÂüڷͿ75 m Ūۋ ūݓۺڌॠٕڷ϶, սݕşə1.5 m ÂüڷͿ300 m Ū ۋūݓѕ࠘ॠٕɰ. ֨߸ėՁࣷԐۙΒεًԓॠي
صڹ՚ʪѺজقʂॢٖԜۋFig. 22قʪ֨ʼرەɰ.
Fig. 22قԴ҃ϸPࣷۆɳϸٖԜقԴ500 m/s ۋԜۆ
՚ʪۋε҃ۋəĵÂں҇սەČ, SࣷۆɳϸٖԜ قԴəܳۓݓًŖߌقԴχ200 m/s ūݓۆ՚ʪÇՙ ÀێرǮڷ϶, ʂߕͿ՚ʪÇՙÀࡾݓ؍ڼں؎ս
ەɰ(Majer et al., 2006).
١࣡ڟۋ(Otway)
CO2CRC ١࣡ڟۋ॒Ϳ܄࣡əܳۆߒѥݫۋԓ জՙ۹॒ۤͿ܄࣡Ϳ2004țҙࢢҙݓԸ܁ф۹Ϊ
ࠗՁজۚغں֨ۚॠٕɰ. 2008ț3ښҙࢢ֨ۚʽ
1ɳćقԴəŖߌۆѣ࣡ͪ֟ݓً(Buttress field)قԴԦ ԓʽۋԓজՙ(75.4 mol% CO2 and 20.5 mol% CH4) ÀॄҙॢÀ֟65,000ࢻںؓ߹ॠيࣷۋ॒͆ۍڷͿ2.25 km ̆ر܋ەəNaylor À֟ۻڷͿսբॢ, ݓॠ
2,050 m Ūۋۆ۹ΪࠗقथŒێܳێق870ࢻۆҼڱ Ϳܳۓॠٕɰ(Underschultz et al., 2011). 2010țҙࢢ
֨ۚʽ2ɳćقԴəܘʌۺڹتۆۋԓজՙεّʂ սࠗق ܳۓॢɰ(CO2CRC, 2010).
Ȑێ͠(Naylor) ݓًقə3Òۆڮ܁ۋەəʚ, 2001
Fig. 23. Geology and well configuration in the CO2CRC Otway field (Underschultz et al., 2011).
Fig. 24. Time-lapse seismic images obtained at Otway.
Circles indicate anomalous difference at Waarre C (Urosevic et al., 2010).
ț5ښق֨߸ʽNaylor-1قԴߎٍÀ֟εьþॠٕČ, Naylor South-1ڹ2001ț 12ښق, CRC-1ڹ 2007țق
֨߸ʼؽɰ. ١࣡ڟۋ॒Ϳ܄࣡قԴəCRC-1ۋۋԓজ
ՙܳۓ܁ڷͿNaylor-1əěࠑ܁ڷͿۋڌʼؽɰ(Vidal- Gilbert et al., 2010).
۹ۤݓəąԐݕࣷթҸ؋ޅۆԐؒࠗ(Waarre C formation)ڷͿFig. 23قԴ҃əцٮÏۋ͇॔֟χࠗ
(Flaxmans formation)ڷͿʙيەڷ϶, ͇॔֟χࠗڦ Ϳ˃ƃڏѲग֟࣡ۋؒ(Belfast Mudstone)ۋȉóқ पॠČەɰ(Vidal-Gilbert et al., 2010). ۹Ϊؒڹϭ
ۋॄҙॢÀ֟εप॥ॠČەؽڷ϶2002țҙࢢ2003 țūݓߎٍÀ֟ÀԦԓʼؽڷ϶, ڍսॢėŕέę࣊ę ڱ(>1,000 md)ںÀݓČەɰ. CRC-1 ڮ܁قԴսॱʽ
ٮۋر͆ۍࢬ֟࣡Ϳҙࢢ2,063.6 mRT ŪۋقԴݓࠗؓ
ͳۋ17.8 MPa ܁ʪۍìڷͿ߸܁ʼؽɰ(Underschultz et al., 2011).
1ɳćقԴəϿɦࢢτںڦ३2D ф3D ՁࣷԐ, սݔՁࣷԐ, Č३ԜʪՁࣷۻࣷ֨ÂࢹϿŔ͒क़ (HRTT: high resolution traveltime tomography), йՙݕ ʴϿɦࢢτˣۋۋڌʼؽɰ. 2000țقԵڮфÀ֟
ԐεЀۺڷͿ3D ՁࣷԐÀߌڼսॱʼؽڷ϶, 2008țقCO2CRCقۆ३1ɳćşܵԐÀ֬֨ʼؽ ɰ. 2009țق̚ॢѥۆԐÀսॱʼؽڷ϶ۋə2ɳ ćۆşܵԐͿۋڌʼؽɰ(CO2CRC, 2010). Fig. 24ə
2008țę2009țقۋΘرݕۍ͆ۍ, ࡾͿ֟͆ۍՁࣷ
Ԑ Āęٮ ˃ ۙΒۆ ۋÉں ǣࢍǶɰ(Urosevic et al., 2010). 2009țۆՁࣷԐəۋԓজՙÀ35,000 ࢻܳۓʼؽں˺սॱʼؽɰ. Fig. 24ۆ2008țę2009 țقصرݕՁࣷԐɳϸقԴъԐϸۋǣࢍǣəܳ
֨ۆѺজəأ±1 ms ܁ʪͿϔڍŖՙॠݓχۋԓজ
ՙܳۓڷͿۍॢݕफۆѺজəঝٍ০ǣࢍǫں؎
սەɰ.
̚ॢٖѧρVSP(ZVSP: zero offset VSP)εۋڌॠ يۋԓজՙܳۓۻęۆѺজεՁėۺڷͿÇݓ ॠٕɰ(Urosevic et al., 2011). Fig. 25ə2007țę2010 țقսॱʽٖѧρVSP ɳϸں҃يܳəʚۙΒߌν
ę܁ںä࠘ݓ؍ڹ҄ʪĂּş(corridor stack) ɳϸʪ ۋɰ. Fig. 25ۆAٮBəИäڏ߸̆Ľ(WD: weight drop)ںՁࣷԢڷͿԐڌॠي2007țę2010țقص ڹĀęۋ϶, Fig. 25ۆCəйɦѣş(MB: mini buggy) цۋҵͿԐۋεۋڌॠي2010țقࠑ܁ॢĀęۋɰ.
Fig. 25ۆDٮEəÁÁBٮCۆۋٮAٮCۆۋ ε҃يܵɰ. Fig. 25Də͈ࣷԟজԕशͿश֨ʽWaarre CݓࠗقۆॢъԐࣷ(BٮC)قԴ֨Âق˰δѺজÀ
ьԦ॰ڼں҃يܳ϶, Fig. 25EۆӊÂԟজԕशͿश֨
ʽҙқڹ2007țę2010țԐقԴ۹Ϊࠗقۆ३ݕ फÇկÀ ێرǮڼں҃يܵɰ(Urosevic et al., 2011).
йՙݕʴϿɦࢢτںڦ३Naylor-1 ڮ܁قՅԴεԺ
࠘ॠČȇɾ1ߣق2,000ÒۆԢ॔ںşॣսەə
Fig. 25. Raw zero-offset VSP (ZVSP) corridor stacks before and after CO2 injection and their successive differences (Urosevic et al., 2011).
Fig. 26. Microseismic events recorded by the Naylor-1 seismic sensors (blue circles) versus CRC-1 well head injection pressure (Daley, 2010).
ۤ࠘εࣀ३2008ț4ښҙࢢ3ܳʴ؋ٍ՚ॠيйՙݕ ʴۋşʼؽɰ(Daley, 2010). Fig. 26ڹěࠑʽйՙݕ ʴşںܳۓ܁ؓͳę॥ƍʪ֨ॢŔ॒͒ε҃يܳ
əʚ, ܳۓęěʹʽѻॢःࢤۋǣࢍǣݓ؍ؕɰ(Daley, 2010).
ࡀݕ(Ketzin)
ʫێۆࡀݕݓًڹڮͥ߯ߣۆگԜݓܼ۹ۤݓͿ
2004țCO2SINK ॒Ϳ܄࣡À҆üۺڷͿ֨ۚʼر2008 ț 6ښҙࢢϔɵ1,000-2,000ࢻۆۋԓজՙε650 m ŪۋۆԐؒࠗقܳۓॠٕɰ. 2011țūݓ۹ۤʽߪۋ ԓজՙ͟ڹ45,000ࢻۋ϶ؘڷͿ100,000ࢻūݓ۹ۤ
ॣٚ܁ۋɰ(Lüth et al., 2011b).
۹ۤʂԜࠗڹݓॠ630-710 m Ūۋقڦ࠘ॢ˃ƍ
80 mۆԘߑşۆԐؒࠗ(Stuttart formation)ڷͿԵٖ,
ۤԵˣڷͿĵՁʼرەڷ϶ؒԵॡۺڷͿŒݗॠݓ؍
ɰ(Kazemeini et al., 2010). ۹ۤʂԜࠗцͿڦقəۋ
ؒ, ʮͿυۋ࣡ˣڷͿĵՁʽʙÒؒۋأ160 m ˃ƍ
ͿܕۦॠČەɰ(Fig. 27; Yordkayhun, 2008). ݓࠗۆ
٣ʪə ܳۓ Ūۋ 600-700 mقԴ 33-36ۋ϶, Ktzi 163/69 ֨߸ėقԴۆ êࠗ ۙΒε ࣀ३ ėŕέڹ أ
23%, սؓ܁ࢬ֟࣡قۆ३࣊ęՁڹ500-1,000 md ѩ ڦε Íə ìڷͿ ߸܁ʼؽɰ(Föster et al., 2006).
ۋ॒Ϳ܄࣡قԴəϿɦࢢτںڦ३֨߸ėêࠗ, ۻ şҼ۹२ࢹϿŔ͒क़ٮशϸ, शϸ-֨߸ė, ֨߸ė-֨߸
ėՁࣷԐˣۋۋڌʼؽɰ(Lüth et al., 2011b). 3D
ՁࣷԐə22,000ࢻۆۋԓজՙÀܳۓʽۍ2009 țقսॱʼؽɰ. Fig. 28ڹ3D ՁࣷԐۆşܵԐ ͿҙࢢصڹࡾͿ֟ՄՎęۋԓজՙ۹ΪࠗԜҙقԴ ۆ֨Âąęݕफں॥ƍʪ֨ॠيǣࢍǶĀęۋɰ. ܳ ۓ܁ŖߌقԴ֨Âق˰δݕफۋԜʂÀǣࢍǣəʚ, ۋə۹ۤʽۋԓজՙͿۍॢٖॳڷͿ३Եॣսە ɰ(Lüth et al., 2011a).
̚ॢۻşҼ۹२Ͽɦࢢτڹܳۓ܁ę˃ěࠑ܁Ǵق
ٖĵۺڷͿԺ࠘ʽѕَںۋڌॠيսॱʼؽČ, ߸Àۺ ڷͿݓश-֨߸ėԐÀ12țυɰսॱʼؽɰ. Fig. 29
Fig. 29. Inversion of resistivity change between baseline and repeated survey (Lüth et al., 2011b).
Fig. 27. Stratigraphy obtained from drilling of the Ktzi 169/63 borehole in Ketzin (Juhlin et al., 2007).
Fig. 28. Time-lapse amplitude on the top of the CO2
injection layer, combined with seismic 3D baseline survey (Lüth et al., 2011a).
əۋԓজՙܳۓۻęۋԓজՙÀ1,750ࢻܳۓʼ ؽں˺ۆҼ۹२ѺজεًԓॢĀęͿԟԜѺজۆɳ ڦə %Ϳ श֨ʽɰ(Lüth et al., 2011b).
ܛ०
ٍ҆ĵقԴܓԐॢ9ÒۆĶٽݓܼ۹॒ۤͿ܄࣡˞
قʂॢݓܼ۹ۤݓࠗۆՁęۋڌʽݓĵНνϿɦ ࢢτşѪ˞ںڅأॠϸÁÁTable 6ęTable 7ęÏɰ.
Ȥβڟۋۆ֢͆ۋ॒ȃݓًڹ३۹أ1,000 mۆ֮ҙ
ّʂսࠗںʂԜڷͿ֨ÂąęՁࣷԐ, ֨Âąę
ܼͳ Ͽɦࢢτں սॱॠٕČ, ࠪǣɰۆ ڟۋѥ ݓًڹ
ݓॠ1,450 mۆڮۻقԵڮধսॳԜѪڷͿۋԓজ
ՙεܳۓॠČ֨ÂąęՁࣷԐˣںսॱॠٕɰ.
Ϳ֟࣡৩ݓًڹ425-640 m Ūۋۆ۹Ϊࠗقʂ३֨߸
ėՁࣷԐфۻۙԐεսॱॠٕČ, ڟ֟࣡ऑࡴ
ݓًڹ1,370 m ŪۋۆԐؒࠗقʂ३ݓशͪۋʌ
Ԑεۺڌॠٕɰ. ێ҆ۆǣÀ١ࠢݓًڹأ1,100 m ŪۋۆąԐݕّʂսࠗقʂ३֨߸ėՁࣷࢹϿŔ͒
क़, НνêࠗˣںϿɦࢢτşѪڷͿۋڌॠٕڷ϶, ؎
܃νۆۍԕ͆ݓًقԴəݓॠ1,880 mۆÀ֟۹Ϊࠗ
قʂ३3D ՁࣷԐٮڦՁԐˣںটڌॠٕɰ. й Ķۆ ॒ν١ݓًقԴə أ 1,530 m ŪۋۆԐؒࠗق
ʂ३֨߸ėՁࣷԐ, սݔՁࣷԐˣںսॱॠ
ٕڷ϶, ܳۆ١࣡ڟۋݓًڹݓॠأ2,050 mقڦ
࠘ॢ҄ۡॢݓݗĵܓۆԐؒࠗقʂ३֨ÂąęՁ
ࣷԐ, սݔՁࣷԐˣںۺڌॠيۋԓজՙܳ
ۓڷͿۍॢѺজεÇݓॠٕɰ. ʫێۆࡀݕݓًڹأ
Table 6. Comparison of reservoir characteristics of carbon storage projects (Arts et al., 2008; White, 2009; Whittaker et al., 2004; ťৠܵˣ, 2005; Gritto et al., 2004; Cooper et al., 2008; Freund et al., 2006; Wells et al., 2007; Durucan et al., 2011; Michael et al., 2010; Mathieson et al., 2009; Daley et al., 2008; Zero, 2011; Förster et al., 2006)
Project Target
formation Lithology Depth (m) Thick- ness (m)
Temp- erature ()
Pressure (kPa)
Porosity (%)
Permeability (mD)
Seal lithology Sleipner Utsira
Formation Sandstone 1,012 250 41 8,000-11,000 30-40 1,000-3,000 Shale
Weyburn Charles Formation
Fractured
Carbonate 1,450 18-29 63 14,200
Marly:
16-38
Marly:
1 to >50 Anhydritic dolostones, anhydrites Vuggy:
8-20
Vuggy:
10 to >300 Lost Hills Monterey
Formation Diatomite 425-640 244 41 55,000-62,000 45-70 <1 - West Pearl
Queen
Queen
Formation Sandstone 1,370 7.5 35 - 15-20 200 Dolomite
and shale Nagaoka Haizume
Formation Sandstone 1,100 60 48 10,800 22.5 6-10 Mudstone
In Salah Krechba
Formation Sandstone 1,880 20-25 90 17,900 11-20 10 Mudstone
Frio Upper Frio C Sandstone 1,528.5-
1,534.7 22.8 55 15,200 30-35 2,000-2,500 Shale
Otway Waarre C
Formation Sandstone 2,050 31 - - 1> Mudstone
Ketzin Stuttgart
Formation Sandstone 630-710 80 35 7,300 23 500-1,000 Mudstone
Table 7. List of geophysical monitoring methods in carbon storage projects (Arts et al., 2008; White, 2011; Whittaker, 2004; Hoversten et al., 2002; Gritto et al., 2004; Pawar et al., 2006; Kikuta et al., 2005; Ringrose et al., 2009; Majer et al., 2006; Daley et al., 2008; CO2CRC, 2011; Lüth et al., 2011b)
Near Surface Subsurface (borehole)
Project 3D Seismic
Remote Sensing (SAR, GPR)
Gravity measurements
Geophysical logging
Micro- seismic
Seismic tomography
Vertical Seismic Profile
Resitivity &
electromagnetic tomography
Sleipner
Weyburn
Lost Hills
West Pearl
Queen
Nagaoka
In Salah
Frio
Otway
Ketzin
650 m ŪۋۆԐؒࠗق֨߸ėêࠗęՁࣷԐ, ֨
߸ėۻşࢹϿŔ͒क़ԐεϿɦࢢτѓѪڷͿۺڌॠ
ٕɰ.
Table 6ںԕट҃ϸ, Ķٽݓܼ۹॒ۤͿ܄࣡ۆʂԜ
ݓࠗ˞ڹۋԓজՙۆݓܼ۹ۤقज़څॢş҆ۺۍܓ
æ˞ںÍ߸Čەڼں؎սەɰ. Á॒Ϳ܄࣡Àս ॱʽĖ˞ڹ۹ۤʽۋԓজՙۆݚۺфपনۋÀɠ
ॢНνۺۍࠗԴфݓݗĵܓεÀݓČەڷ϶, ۋԓজ
ՙÀߣےćԜͿ۹ۤʾսەʪۺۼॢ٣ʪٮ
ؓͳܓæںÍəŪۋقܳۓėۋڦ࠘ॢɰ. ̚ॢؒԵ
ۆėŕέф࣊ęՁڹۋԓজՙۆܳۓՁęমڱ, ߿ қॢ۹ۤڌ͟ˣęÏڹܓæںχܔ֨ࢅşق߿қ॰
ɰ. ۋəٽĶۆąڍԵڮфߎٍÀ֟ۙڙÒьę܁
قԴ߹ۺʽ܁҃ٮşց, ąॹڷͿҼİۺ֖óۋԓজ
ՙݓܼ۹ۤęěʹʽ֬ݒфԜڌজقۿŖॠČە ڼں ֨Ԑॢɰ.
Table 7ں҃ϸ, Á॒Ϳ܄࣡قԴəܳͿݓशф֨߸
ėՁࣷԐεۺڌॠٕČ, ݓًق˰͆йՙݕʴϿ ɦࢢτ, ۻşҼ۹२Ԑ, ۻۙԐ, ܼͳԐ, ݓशͪۋ ʌԐˣɰتॢНνԐşѪںԸ࢘ۺڷͿۺڌॠ
ٕڼں؎սەɰ. ʂߕͿԜغۺőϿۆąڍ, Ձࣷ
ԐٮÏۋҼİۺêݒʽşցχںۺڌॠČەəъ ϸ, ֬ॹőϿۆąڍ, ۻşфۻۙԐ, ܼͳԐ, йՙ ݕʴˣÁܛѓѪ˞ۋϿɦࢢτşցͿԴۺ०ॢݓф
ŔՁɠںथÀॢɰəě۾قԴɰتॠóۺڌʼČەڼ ں؎սەɰ. ՁࣷԐĀęقԴəۋԓজՙܳۓ ڷͿۍॢÌॢڼۆՁࣷݕफęՁࣷ՚ʪÇՙͿ
ۍॢ֨ÂݓٍˣۆѺজεϼঝॠóঝۍॣսەؽɰ.
йՙݕʴϿɦࢢτڹۋԓজՙܳۓęěʹʽѻॢ
ąॳںǣࢍǴݓ؍ؕڷ϶, ۻşҼ۹२ԐфۻۙԐ əۋԓজՙۆäʴںࣷ؊ॠşڦॢݓॠۆ܁҃ε
صəʚۋڌʼؽɰ. ܼͳԐقԴʪۋԓজՙܳۓڷ Ϳۍॢ֨ÂąęܼͳÉѺজÀÇݓʼؽڷ϶, ݓशͪ
ۋʌԐəۋԓজՙۆսݔۺĵÀʾսەə
ࣀͿε؉Դۋԓজՙɀڦॹںঝۍॠşڦ३
Ԑڌʼؽɰ.
ܳЀ३آॣìڹÁ॒Ϳ܄࣡قԴۺڌʽي͠ݓĵ НνşѪ˞ۋێ܁܁ʪۆՁėę֬ःεϿ˃҃يܳ
Čەɰə۾ۋɰ. ۋəݓܼ۹ۤҙݓۆݓۺܓæę
ݓݗ, սνݓݗॡۺՁق˰͆ϿɦࢢτѓѪۋɵ͆
܋آ॥ںۆйॢɰ. ˰͆Դ, ֬ःεܶۋČՁėέںȭ ۋş ڦ३Դə Ԑيæ(ݓश ̚ə ֨߸ė ˣ)ق ˰͆
ԐŪۋق˰δқ३ɠۆ۹ॠ, ܳۓʽۋԓজՙقۆ
ॢݓॠϔݗۆݓĵНνॡۺНՁۆѺজ܁ʪфŔ
ݓÀɠՁ, ֨ÂąęԐۆąڍۋԓজՙۆܳۓ قۆ३ьԦॠəНՁʂҼۆ܁ʪٮࠑ܁١ٮۆě
֮ʪ ەə ٍĵÀ ڍԸʼرآ ॣ ìۋɰ.
Ā
ۋԓজՙۆपݚф۹ۤşցڹۋԓজՙεܶۋ şڦॢşցͿۋԓজՙܳۓۋԓজՙۆäʴ ںϿɦࢢτॠşڦ३ɰتॢݓĵНνԐşѪںۋ
ڌॢɰ. ३ٽۺڌԐͻ˞ںқԵॢĀę, ÁܛݓĵНν
ԐşѪ˞ۋۋԓজՙݓܼ۹ۤęěʹʽϿɦࢢτ
şցͿԴՁėۺڷͿটڌʼşڦ३ԴəÁѓѪۋÀݓ əڙνԜ̚əۺڌܓæق˰δۺڌԜॢć, ۋԓজ
ՙܳۓق˰δйՙॢНՁѺজقʂॢݓɠͳ, ǣ
؉Àࠑ܁ʽݓĵНνНՁںۋڌॢ۹ۤࠗǴۋԓজ
ՙۆäʴقʂॢ܁͟қԵѓѪˣقʂॢݓ՚ۺۍ
ٍĵٮ֬ݒۋज़څॠɰČࣺɳʽɰ. ̚ॢݓĵНνԐ
şѪ˞ۆۺڌՁęНՁۆѺজتԜڹݓфݓݗܓ æق˰͆ϔڍɵ͆ݓóʼдͿٽĶۆۺڌԐͻقʂ
ॢқԵĀęÀڍνǣ͆ۆ֬܁ęيæقҙ०ʼəì ڹ؉ɩìۋɰ. ˰͆Դইۦڍνǣ͆قԴćনʼČە əۋԓজՙݓܼ۹ۤ֬ݒԐغ˞ۋՁėॠşڦ३Դ ə߯ۺۆ֨ॹҙݓԸ܁, CO2 ۹ۤࠗقʂॢ܁н
ՁқԵںڦॢۺۼॢϿɦࢢτѓѪۆԸ࢘, ۺڌ, ê ݒˣۋտۺڷͿۋΘر܋آॣìۋɰ. ֬ݒɳćق ԴəşܕۆݓĵНνॡۺѓѪۆۺڌфêݒںࣀ३
ۺڌÀɠՁęॢć۾ںČॠČ, ۋεÒԸॠşڦॢ
ݓ՚ۺۍ ٍĵÀ ज़څॣ ìۋɰ.
ۋԓজՙपݚф۹ۤşցڹজԵٍΒεԐڌॠϸ ԴۋԓজՙεÇ߹ॣսەə४֮şցͿ, ʂߕقȃݓ ÀÒь؋ʽԜقԴমęۺۍۋԓজՙÇ߹սɳۋ
ʾìۋɰ. ̚ॢ֪ۦԦقȃݓÀজԵٍΒεٰۻ০ʂߕ
ॢɰČॠʌ͆ʪ֪ۦԦقȃݓεԦԓॠəę܁قԴѕ
ʾսەəۋԓজՙεÇ߹ॠəսɳڷͿԴؘڷͿ
ŔܼڅՁۋʌڎ࠶ݗìڷͿۻϐʽɰ. ۋقĶǴقԴ ʪۋԓজՙݓܼ۹ۤşցۋÒьʼČ֬ڌজʼرۋ ԓজՙÇ߹սɳڷͿ টڌʾ ս ەşε şʂॢɰ.
ԐԐ
“҆ ٍĵə Ķࢹ३تҙ/ॢĶ३تęॡşցݕڙ/ॢĶ ३تٍĵڙۆݓڙڷͿԴڐʂॡİقԴսॱॠČەə
“CO2 ३تݓܼ۹ۤşցÒь”Ԑغۆ ٍĵĀę ܼ ێҙ ےں э০϶, ٍĵҼ ݓڙق ÇԐ˚ςɦɰ.”
ČЛॶ
୍ఢ, ஜࡦ, ࢮ, ֹ, ଲւઽ, ଲઽࡿ, ଲఢ, ୨জ, ก็, 2008,ଲॺฃীඑுࢫୠୋ׆২,
ࢂԨ, ছ, pp. 1-499.
็ஜ, ౖේ, ڧࠤ, ْࡣ, ଗ, ଲஂ, ছ୨็, 2005, “ැড: ਏԩլրݗࠛࢱ࣫ୡࢄࠤॷ׆࣑ଡ
ଲଲॺฃীଭணళࠤࡦۍഉࠫ,” ֜ࢄࠤ
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କܛֽ, ઽ, ࢮఛ, ෛ۩׆, ଗ౿, 2007, “ࢱܑச
࣡ැઑଭଲॺฃীணళंԧۇন,”֝֜ਏਆ
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