Changes, led by the rapid development in science and technology, are affecting every aspect of our lives. These changes demand that we take new approaches in pursuing human resource development and vocational education and training. More specifically, there is a pressing need for us to reconsider the content and scope of vocational education and training, to invent new system of administration and finance, and to innovate the delivery methods based on technological advancement. When these emerging demands are met, the linkage between learning and work will be reinforced and the transition from one to the other will take place more smoothly.
Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training (KRIVET) is performing research and activities to achieve successful human resources development at the national level by overcoming challenges that rapid changes entail. The abstracts in this volume are from the 53 research reports among 120 research projects conducted in 2001 by KRIVET researchers. In comparison with the abstracts from projects carried out in year 2000, there is a visible increase in the number of research projects concerned with national initiatives for HRD or HRD at the corporate level. KRIVET will further intensify its research efforts in dealing with HRD in due consideration of its importance, and at the same time continue to make its contribution in promoting VET as part of lifelong learning.
It is my sincere wish that the 2001 Research Abstracts will serve as an informative guide to the readers, including students, experts, policymakers and anyone who may be concerned with HRD and lifelong VET.
Moo-Sub Kang, Ph.D.
President, KRIVET
Study on the Natural Rate of Unemployment and Its Changes
Chang-Kyun Chae Tae-Yol Lee
The purpose of this study is to estimate the level and movement of natural rate of unemployment and examine more systematically the main possible explanations of its changes.
The estimates of the level and movement of natural rate of unemployment were based on two different concepts of natural rate of unemployment: 'the unemployment rate under full employment' on the one hand and 'non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment', so called NAIRU on the other. Economists have generally analyzed natural unemployment rate based on the second concept, NAIRU. Even though this study basically begins with the same idea of the economists, it attempts to cover the other concept of the natural rate of unemployment.
The researchers began with the basic equation in which the dependent variable is inflation rate and explanatory variables are unemployment rate, natural rate of unemployment and other variables affecting inflation. Difficulty of estimation comes from the fact that one of the explanatory variables, natural rate of unemployment, cannot be observed. Different methods are applied depending on the assumptions about natural rate of unemployment.
First, it is assumed that natural rate of unemployment is constant over time. In this case, there is no variable left unobserved in the equation and simple ordinary least square can be used for estimation.
Second, the natural rate of unemployment is assumed to have random walk process. In this case, unemployment rate should be decomposed into the trend component and cyclical component, and estimated trend component becomes the natural rate of unemployment. State-space model should be applied to conduct this estimation.
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Third, the natural rate of unemployment is assumed to have simple linear relationship with the change of ratio between stock and population age over 15. The idea is that if the natural rate of unemployment is 'the unemployment rate under full employment', it must have simple relation with magnitude of stock and population. Again, the state-space model is applied to conduct this estimation.
Despite the complexity and variety of estimation methods, the estimated result is quite consistent, ranging between 3.5 4.0%. This implied that if unemployment rate exists in this range, the government's aggregate demand policy for reducing unemployment could cause side effects such as inflation.
In addition, this study considered three factors among others, namely changes in the composition of the labor force, changes in industrial structure, and an increase in unemployment benefit to examine how they affected the natural unemployment rate.
First of all, changes in the composition of the labor force produced no particular effect on the changes in unemployment rate after currency crisis. The most abrupt increase of unemployment rate since 1997 has resulted from the general increase of unemployment rate in all the composing groups that make up the economically active population.
However, the fact cannot be neglected that time series is too short for the changes in the composition of the labor force to be discovered.
Meanwhile, it is verified that the changes in industrial structure exerted constant effect on the natural rate of unemployment. As shown in the abrupt growth of ICT industry and drastic increase of venture corporations, the industrial structure has greatly changed around the time of the currency crisis, the so-called 'IMF era'. Increases in frictional and structural unemployment through these changes in industrial structure are raising the natural rate of unemployment. The changes in industrial structure are measured by the sectoral shift index of Lilien (1982), which means deviation of the rate of hiring growth among the industrial fields. The changes in sectoral shift index especially between the fourth quarter of 1997 and the first quarter of 1999 when sectoral shift index reached the climax can explain approximately 10-12% of the changes in unemployment rate in the same period. The effect that the changes in industrial structure have on unemployment rate is not so small, but not so great compared with that of America.
Finally, this study confirms that unemployment benefit has the negative effect of raising unemployment rate. Unemployment benefit per unemployed person has rapidly increased because the coverage of unemployment insurance has widened and the number of days of fixed allowance is added. It is proved that the changes in unemployment benefit raise the unemployment rate by the aggregate time series analysis regarding the relation of unemployment benefit and unemployment rate. The greater the replacement ratio (i.e. ratio of unemployment benefit over wages), the higher the unemployment rate.
Of course, it cannot be neglected that the government may make policy efforts to enlarge the coverage of unemployment benefit and increase the number of days of fixed allowance in order to minimize social and political unrest caused by the increase of unemployment. In fact, it is empirically confirmed that replacement ratio is enhanced by unemployment rate. Since results from the single equation is biased, 2 stage least squares method (2SLS) is applied. The estimate result shows that replacement ratio still affects the unemployment rate in the direction of the positive.
If government policy to lower the natural rate of unemployment itself is needed, the policy to minimize impact of swift changes in industrial structure on the labor market would be essential. In addition, improvement of unemployment benefit system to induce re-employment of the unemployed would be essential since it is found that the unemployment benefit could raise the unemployment rate.
Measuring Human Capital Stock in Korea during the 1963 2000
Nam Chul Lee Geung Hee Lee
This paper presents a labor income based measure of Korea's human capital stock from 1963 to 2000. This study tries to provide a more precise and consistent measure of the human capital stock of Korea over the period 1963-2000. For this purpose, the researchers used all available basic statistics to compile consistent time series data on wage rates, average working hours by industries, composition of workers cross-classified by industry, educational attainment, sex, and class of employment.
Human capital has been provided in several studies by average years of schooling, educational attainment, and literacy rates. Average years of schooling so widely used in human capital estimates that utilize both aggregate data and micro data. There are two reasons that come to mind immediately.
First, an average year of schooling is a useful indicator of capital accumulation.
Particularly when there are no other readily available measures-either for individuals or with economy wide time series. Particularly, in cross-country comparisons, the average year of schooling is often the only feasible measure.
Second, there is a theoretical argument that indicators that the average year of schooling is a measure of the stock of human capital under a reasonable set of assumptions. However, the average year of schooling is far from a perfect measure of the stock of human capital.
First, estimates of the returns to schooling are sensitive to the correct specification of investment costs, but the overall conclusions concerning the importance of schooling are robust.
Second, schooling produces only a part of the stock of capital. Some economists estimated that investment in on-the-job training produces 39% of the human capital.
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Finally, this measure does not assume that the productivity differential among workers is proportional to the differential in educational attainment. It also strives to capture differences in quality of education as well as the market relevance of different types of education and of working experience.
Educational attainment can be a useful tool for comparing one feature of the human capital stock. However, they have several drawbacks: first, because completion of schooling does not certify a consistent set of skills; second, because it ignores less formal learning; third, because skills can depreciate, and fourth, because it can be hard to compare attainment by economic category. Literacy rates give an indication of educational mobility between generations, which has a bearing both on quality of opportunity and the prospect of improving overall human capital stock.
Literacy is a stock variable, but it involves important empirical problems; for instance, it does not account for the contribution of higher levels of education which tend to be crucial to productivity increases and, therefore, to aggregate economic growth.
The issue is simply whether capital should be measured by its market value or by investment costs. The measure suggested in this paper - a labor-income based measure - uses the market value of capital services to measure the capital stock. It contrasts this measure with the use of the number of years of schooling as an indicator of the stock of human capital. Labor-income-based measures of human capital stock only take account of the market value of human capital. Mulligan and Sala-i-Martin (1995) have used a measure based on educational attainment of the labor force and the share of different groups in labor income. They found that across states in the United States, those with the lowest level of human capital stock in the initial period had the highest growth over time. They also found that for the period 1940-90, the stock of human capital grew twice as quickly in the United States than would have indicated by measures based on average years of schooling alone. However, some states, which have lots of schooling, do not have very high stocks of human capital.
Labor-income-based measures of human capital stock only take account of the market value of human capital. There are some drawbacks in the ways which compute human capital. One major drawback is that it utilizes some assumptions. Specifically, the relative
wage weights used in their construction are a true reflection of productivity differences due to schooling if labor with different years of schooling is perfect substitutes. The second potential source of problems could be assumption that the uneducated are perfect substitutes for the rest of the labor force. Furthermore, there are many other elements of human capital investment - parental inputs, on the job training, health investments - which are likely to be related to the level of schooling investments. Thus, estimates of the effects of schooling investments on earnings can be biased.
We presents of estimates of human capital stock for industry as a whole in terms of all industries without considering class of employment and considering class of employment. Because of the wage data for self-employed and family workers are not available, we devise estimates of human capital stock separately depending on the assumption for the wage differential by class of employment.
In the case of all industries without considering class employment, the aggregate volume and quality of labor input increased at an average rate of 3.73 percent and 0.84 percent per year respectively during the 1963-2000. Consequently, approximate 23 percent of the growth of labor volume can be attributed to improvement in labor quality from 1963 to 2000.
When 75 percent of the wage rates of employees is assumed to apply for unpaid workers, the aggregate volume and quality of labor input increased at an average rate of 3.99 percent and 1.10 percent per year respectively during the 1963-2000 in all industries with considering class employment. Consequently, approximate 28 percent of the growth of labor volume can be attributed to improvement in labor quality during the 38-year period.
Methods of Promoting Private Investment into Human Resources Development Industry
Whan-sik Kim Cheol-hee Kim
In the 21st century's knowledge-based society, the ability to create and apply knowledge is the main factor that determines a nation's prosperity and at the same time, it is the core strategy for enhancing the nation's competitiveness.
Whereas the importance of human resources development and human resources development industry is emphasized, the definition of human resources development varies among scholars according to their viewpoints; And the confusion in the definition of human resources development directly results in the confusion in the definition of human resources development industry.
To clear the confusion, this study will define the terms 'human resources development' and 'human resources development industry (hereafter HRD industry),' and suggest methods to promote private investment in HRD industry through analysis of existing laws and system.
II.
According to the definition used by Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development and international organizations, such as OECD, UNESCO and ILO, human resources development, in essence, is the discovery and cultivation of the individual's potential to build a globalized and knowledge-based society in which everyone can co-exist. That is, human resources development is to maximize human potential and to
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make most of this potential for the advancement of economy and society. It can be understood as formation, use and distribution of human resources in a broad sense; as human resources development in corporations in a narrow sense; or only formation of human resources in an enlarged sense.
In this study, HRD industry is defined based on the definition of human resources development and general facts of standard industry classification are summed up to draw out standard industry classification regarding HRD industry. In addition, the difference between market and industry is illustrated. With all these particulars, HRD industry is defined as the industry related to the formation and distribution of human resources. In this definition, the use of human resources is not included because it does not produce any services or goods.
Therefore, HRD industry can be understood as the industry involving a series of activities to produce or provide education and training services that contribute to the formation of human resources; employment security services, career counseling services, and qualification services that foster the distribution of human resources; and finally information services that produce and disseminate information about the education and training market and the employment market. Based on this definition of HRD industry, the study searches for the possibility of industry classification to fulfill special purposes.
III.
The researchers analyzed, based on statistical data, the size and scale of HRD industry and the share of private investment in the industry. It was evident that the proportion of private investment is not insignificant, especially in the formal educational institutions.
However, there was a need to expand private investment in adult education and worker education and training. The statistics show that there is greater investment given to private organizations than to the governmental or public organizations. What is important is not the quantity of investment but the quality and substance of the investment. Now that private participation in the fields of HRD industry has expanded in quantity, it is
necessary to analyze the extent of regulation in activities and operations of HRD industry. The analysis of the relevant laws shows that deregulation is required to foster the HRD industry. In addition, the direction for revising the relating law is suggested.
IV.
To effectively promote the HRD industry, it is necessary to first examine the significance of private investment and the factors that hinder or facilitate it, and then to devise effective ways of investment. There are mainly three significances to promoting private investment in HRD industry: vitalization of HRD industry by private organization, promotion of private investment for development of HRD industry, and enlargement of individual investment.
Based on our findings we identified a number of tasks, which if fulfilled, could foster private investment in HRD industry. We found, for example, that the establishment of a comprehensive plan, taxation benefits and financial support for equipment and facilities is necessary for achieving this.
Measures that could help foster the private investment in this industry were also identified. First, the expansion of paid study leaves may be effective. Second, reforming the loan system, including reciprocal financing, could encourage learners and their parents to make investments. Third, the actual operation of the Education Account System, which is not practiced although it is prescribed in the lifelong education law, could also help.
A similar Individual Study Account System exists in England. Fourth, financial support for individuals can help them participate in lifelong education and human resources development.
V.
This study concludes with following suggestions on what efforts the government can make to promote private investment in HRD industry: 1) review of the possibility of linking the industry policy, R&D policy, and education policy; 2) clear division of labor
between the government and the private sector through adjusting government regulations in the human resources development field; 3) amendment of related laws based on a thorough survey and analysis of existing regulations; 4) devising ways to secure the necessary budget to invigorate human resources development; 5) making new laws that can strengthen the financial security and help formulate new methods of developing the human resources development industry, and the addition of taxation support, finance support, and improvement of security system to the devices; and 6) review of related policies through tripartite dialogue among labor, management and government to accomplish the improvement of laws and regulations, the reinforcement of financial security, and the building of partnership to share the financial burden of making these efforts.
A Study on the Reinforcement Strategies of Vocational Education at Accredited Schools for Life-long Education
Tae-Joune Park
This study recognizes the necessity of vocational education for students in accredited schools for lifelong education, and proposes ways to strengthen vocational education for students. For this, vocational education and overall operational conditions of the accredited schools for lifelong education were examined, interviews and surveys were conducted, and experts were consulted needs of school administrators, teachers and students. In the process, related issues were identified and improvement measures were developed.
I.
Currently, there are 43 accredited schools for lifelong education in Korea. These schools target dropouts from regular schools, teenagers who do not attend school and grownups who do not have the opportunity to learn in a regular school due to personal, family or environmental reasons. As these students have lacked the opportunity to learn for a long period of time, or as they have a low level of learning ability, they find it difficult to finish an academic curriculum, and fail to receive an education that will prepare them for modern-day life. There are several measures that can address these problems. First, we can develop a type of vocational education which can be managed efficiently, and implement the required improvements. Secondly, we can provide financial support to the schools, as the most direct and effective method of strengthening vocational education.
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II.
The study develops and presents four types of vocational education - namely, the Initial Education Type, the Continuing Education Type, the Institutions Linkage Type, and the Accreditation of Job Experience Type. The Initial Education Type structures and implements vocational education, aiming the employment of learners. This type of vocational education focuses on developing comprehensive capability required in a certain job category.
The main objective of the Continuing Education Type is not the employment of learners in itself. Rather, this type focuses on teaching genetic skills that are useful in life to learners, especially enhancing basic vocational capabilities such as computer skills that are essential in the information society.
The Institutions Linkage Type not only offers curriculum of an accredited school for lifelong education, but also enables students to learn vocational education and training programs carried out by diverse external institutions. Courses operated by affiliate institutions are recognized as valid curricula of the credited school for lifelong education, allowing students to accumulate credits for a diploma.
The Accreditation of Job Experience Type recognizes the job experience of grown-ups or students by taking certain accreditation procedures, and awards diplomas when they complete other academic subjects required for graduation.
III.
1. How to manage different types of vocational education
This study suggests a number of ways to promote vocational education in the accredited institutions of lifelong education.
First, expand online lecture classes by using the Internet and, specifically, seek linkage with Air and Correspondence High Schools. By linking two institutions that maintain different educational methods for the same learner group, educational effectiveness can be
improved.
Secondly, implement an on-site education program. Lifelong education schools are concentrated in large cities and cannot cover all those who want education. To overcome this limitation, schools can reach out to the students who do not have easy access to an educational facility.
Thirdly, enable class-based registration for grown-up learners, rather than insisting on a full-day curriculum. Consider the characteristics of grown-up students who have to carry out various activities in everyday life besides learning; full-day classes can create a barrier prohibiting the class participation of these learners.
Fourth, strengthen vocational counseling programs and increase the number of dedicated vocational counselors for teenage learners. Besides programs to develop vocational capability and acquire knowledge, teenage learners desperately need programs that can help them make decisions for their future courses and find suitable jobs. For this, it is required to deploy dedicated counseling teachers at the accredited schools for lifelong education who can provide vocational counseling and career advice.
2. Financial support
Financial supports to promote vocational education in the accredited lifelong education can benefit individuals and institutions.
2.1 Support for individuals
First, expand the opportunity of vocational education and training for students of lifelong education schools. Currently, only students of academic and vocational schools, who want to get a job instead of entering a college, can receive vocational and technical training for a certain period of time at a vocational school that is designated under the regulations of a regional education office. In terms of vocational education and training, learners of accredited schools for lifelong education should be allowed to participate in the programs of vocational schools just as students of regular high schools do.
Another way of financial support can be making education of middle school curriculum
free-of-charge. Currently, implementation of free-of-charge education is scheduled to take place in phases from next year starting with the first grades of regular middle schools.
Likewise, learners of middle school curriculum at lifelong education schools should be included as the beneficiaries of the policy of free-of-charge education.
2.2 Support for institutions
First, provide financial support to lifelong education schools, specifying the objectives of the support. Financial support is required to effectively run and reinforce vocational education. A realistic solution to achieve this is for the government to provide support for the accredited schools for lifelong education, specifying the objectives of the support and guiding and supervising detailed spending according to those objectives.
Second, encourage the accredited schools for lifelong education to establish a corporate body. In legal terms, the managers of these facilities should be a corporate body in order to be eligible for financial support from the government. To facilitate the process, the existing laws should be amended or special legal provisions must be added to recognize accredited schools for lifelong education as independent 'corporations of lifelong education (tentatively named).' The minimum capital required to form a corporation of the accredited school for lifelong education should be flexibly set. When a school establishes such a corporation, support for its stable management and activities should be ensured.
The Comprehensive Scheme For Lifelong Vocational Education and Training (II)
Jeong-Pyo Lee Hye-Won Go I.
As a two-year project from 2000 to 2001, this study aims to develop a comprehensive development plan for lifelong vocational education and training. Such a plan will enable the nation to better respond to internal and external environmental changes by developing individual proficiency, and provide support for the development of job competence of all citizens.
The second phase of the study, which took place in year 2001, was focused on the assessment of the current state of Korea's lifelong education and training in order to identify related issues. In addition, policies of lifelong vocational education and training programs and their implementation in such advanced countries as Japan, Australia and Britain were analyzed and useful implications were extrapolated. Furthermore, groups of military servicemen, inmates of correctional facilities, the disabled and senior citizens in Korea were sampled and studied to evaluate the provision of lifelong vocational education and training for each group. Finally, comprehensive plans to improve lifelong vocational education and training are suggested.
This study divided lifelong vocational education and training system into several sub-areas: learning/career and counseling/employment information systems; operational systems for lifelong vocational education and training; assessment and recognition system of lifelong vocational education and training; and the government's administrative and financial support system.
The study adopts several research methods, such as literature and data analysis, RR 01-05
meetings of professional council, discussion sessions, and interviews. An advisor panel was also formed.
II.
This study presents the vision, objectives, basic implementation directions, and implementation plan and strategy for lifelong vocational education and training as follows:
1. Vision and objectives
This study expounds the vision of lifelong vocational education and training as building a 'society of learning where anyone is able to benefit from vocational education and training, as desired, at any time.'
Key objectives of lifelong vocational education and training are as follows:
First, integrate, innovate, and expand information systems to allow everyone to conveniently access career and vocational counseling and information on learning/employment opportunities, with the aim of expanding opportunities and options for individuals to participate in lifelong vocational education and training.
Second, build a system to operate lifelong vocational education and training so that individuals can develop their job competence based on their diverse needs in places and sectors other than the school.
Third, diversify assessment and recognition systems and strengthen quality control so that the results of individual's participation in vocational education and training throughout his/her life can be evaluated, certified and effectively utilized.
Fourth, renovate the infrastructure for the operation of central and regional lifelong vocational education and training, and activate vocational education and training at the local level.
Fifth, engender a fresh perspective on the roles and responsibilities of all participants, including government, education and training providers, enterprises and individuals, in establishing a lifelong vocational education and training system, and strengthen the
partnership among the stakeholders.
2. Basic implementation directions
For maximum results, lifelong vocational education and training should be pursued in ways that promote linkage, localization, prudent utilization of technology, social integration, and diversification.
3. Implementation plan and strategy
3.1 Expand opportunities for participation in lifelong vocational education and training,
- Regularly conduct surveys and assess needs to improve the participation of the people in lifelong vocational education and training.
- Develop and implement national advertisement strategy to enhance the public perception of the importance of lifelong vocational education and training and to provide more opportunities for people to participate in the vocational education and training programs.
- Strengthen governmental support to each of the learning organizations and establish a culture of learning to encourage and facilitate individuals to voluntarily participate in learning programs.
- Build and operate an integrated system to disseminate learning, career and employment related information.
- Build a system to train and retrain professional job counselors to enable them to acquire the necessary expertise, and strengthen their qualifications.
- Expand job stabilization institutions and strengthen their services to provide people with employment information as well as vocational and career counseling services.
- Strengthen the nexus between schools and public job stabilization institutions to support career counseling for students.
3.2 Build an adequate infrastructure for the operation of lifelong vocational education and training
- Develop national skill standards for job competence so that vocational education curriculum, training standards, and certification criteria can be formulated to improve practical vocational education and training.
- Define the roles and responsibilities of public vocational education and training providers, and strengthen the network among the institutions.
- Build a systematic basis to motivate enterprises to make sustained investments in vocational education and training.
- Activate education and training providers in the private sector so that vocational education and training institutions can serve a diverse group of learners and contribute to the development of human resources through high quality, diversified education and training programs based on the principles of fair market competition.
- Build a community school system to serve as formal education and training institution responsible for providing lifelong vocational education regionally, and in particular, reorganize junior college management systems to accommodate adult education.
3.3 Diversify and improve the quality of systems to assess and recognize lifelong vocational education and training
- Renovate the national vocational certification system to ensure practicality and reliability of certificates and strengthen linkage with the school curriculum.
- Strengthen the government's accountability for the operation and management of national vocational certification in order to improve reliability.
- Diversify the licensing system to actively assess and certify diverse learning results of lifelong education and training, and expand opportunities to develop and improve job competence.
- Strengthen and systematically organize prior learning assessment and recognition system to activate lifelong learning.
- Expand an academic credit banking system to support development of job competence among adults, expand the scope of subjects that award valid credits, and develop a system to comprehensively and systematically certify the result of individual's prior learning.
- Build individual career development system that supports individuals throughout their lifetime.
3.4 Strengthen regional lifelong vocational education and training system
- Strengthen the autonomy of local governments to supervise and manage lifelong and vocational education and training to activate regional lifelong vocational education and training.
- Strengthen tax incentives to activate paid and unpaid learning leave system.
- Strengthen the participation of labor unions in vocational education and training to enhance the practicality of programs and increase awareness of social responsibility of the labor unions.
III.
First, the government should develop and implement short- and long-term national vision and implementation strategies to ensure the systematic implementation of lifelong vocational education and training for all people, and should strengthen the accountability of those responsible for the implementation.
Second, the government should strengthen the learning, career & counseling, and employment information system to expand opportunities for all people to participate in lifelong vocational education and training.
Third, the government should generate a positive educational and training environment and build a system to enable all people to participate in high quality vocational education and training anytime and anywhere.
Fourth, he government should build a national-level quality control system to appraise the performance of lifelong vocational education and training and evaluate the
accountability.
Fifth, the government should strengthen the assessment and recognition system to allow the results of individual learning from lifelong vocational education and training to be socially recognized.
Finally, the government should strengthen its accountability in implementing lifelong vocational education and training, as well as in providing administrative and financial support.
Promotion of Vocational Competence Development for Non-standard Workers: Focusing on Production Workers in Manu facturing Sector
Hong-Geun Chang Sun-Yee Hong
Growing flexibility of labor market in recent years has rapidly increased the number of non-standard workers. Unfortunately, most of these workers are subject to unfavorable conditions in terms of wage and other working conditions. Little vocational education and training programs are provided for the non-standard workers, thus leaving them in a vicious cycle of unstable employment and unemployment. Supporting the development of vocational competence of non-standard workers, therefore, is of great importance not only for the promotion of productivity and career development of individual workers but also for the enhancement of social equality and productivity of national human resources.
This study focuses on 1)description of the characteristics of non-standard workers, 2)analysis of the existing vocational education programs, 3)and development of supporting programs and policies that best fit the conditions of non-standard workers.
This study takes the traditional approach which based on to worker's status categorizes temporary and daily labor as non-standard labor. To be specific, it defines non-standard workers as workers who are not categorized into regular workers in terms of employment status, types of work services, and work time. According to this approach, there are various types of non-standard workers: temporary workers employed for less than one year, daily workers, dispatched workers, contract workers, etc. While there are some questions of over- or under-estimation, it is largely viewed that the proportion of non-standard workers of total labor force has steadily grown with the advance of flexibility in labor market since 1990. The growth of non-standard labor is especially noticeable since the economic crisis starting from 1997. It is estimated that temporary and daily workers account for 52.4% of total labor force in 2000.
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The analysis of composition of non-standard workers shows that female workers, workers with lower education, and unskilled workers occupy larger portion. In terms of age, the greatest proportion of non-standard workers are in the 20s to 40s age group, while the ratio of non-standard worker population in the total workforce of each age group is highest in the teenage group and the 50s or older group. Among industries, manufacturing, wholesales and retail trade, food and lodging, and construction industries account for higher proportion of non-standard workers. In terms of occupation, non-standard workers are concentrated in occupation that involve manual labor, sales and/or service workers, and semi-skilled workers. The proportion of short-time labor among non-standard workers is remarkably higher than that among regular workers. The characteristics of non-standard workers in the manufacturing sector are parallel to those of non-standard workers in general: a larger part of non-standard workers in the manufacturing sector is distributed to lesser skilled jobs.
The legal and institutional measures for vocational training of non-standard workers in Korea are not very well established yet. As non-standard labor became a social issue in recent years, the government proposed an expanded aid program for vocational training of non-standard labor in October, 2000. This proposal includes 1)expanded aid to employers and workers during the training period, 2)extending the scope of eligibility for stipend aid, 3)grant of training allowances to daily construction workers participating in programs, 4)research and development of appropriate job opportunities for temporary and daily workers, and 5)modularization of training manual for non-standard workers. Most of these projects, however, are still in the research and examination stage.
Most advanced countries, especially Germany and France, are coping with the non-standard labor issue under the general guideline of 'equal treatment for regular and non-standard workers'. Some countries operate special institutional systems for non-standard labor on need base, e.g., Aid Center for Part-Time Workers in Japan.
Norway enforces a policy which allows educational leaves to part-time and temporary employees. International Labour Organization (ILO) suggests, via Part-Time Work Agreement and Part-Time Work Recommendation, equal treatment for regular and non-standard workers, and development of appropriate measures to overcome the
limitations of vocational competence of part-timers.
The findings from the survey of non-standard workers and workplaces employing them show that companies hire non-standard workers for 'a flexible utilization of simple task labor' or for 'a flexible supply of labor according to demands and orders'. The employers report that the most noticeable difficulties in hiring non-standard workers are their 'lack of attachment', 'frequent entry and leave', and 'passive work attitude'. The survey also shows that non-standard workers are more aged (40 years or older) than regular workers.
Although it is not very frequent, the survey notices some cases of transfer from non-standard to regular labor. In terms of wage, temporary workers earn on average 73.8% of the wage of regular workers, part-timers 53.8%, and dispatched workers 78.5%.
The proportion of workers covered by the employment insurance is 44.9% for full-time temporary employees and 6.9% for part-timers, which exhibits a huge drop from regular workers' number.
The survey reveals that non-standard workers receive much less benefit of on-the-job educational training than regular workers. For example, the average training hours spent to acquire professional skills is 51.8 hours for regular workers, while it is just 20 hours for non-standard workers. It is estimated that, among survey respondents, only 7-8% of non-standard workers have taken educational training besides safety drills at their current employment.
The methods of educational training are evenly distributed for regular workers:
on-the-job training is 30.5%, public commissioned training 29.5%, and private commissioned training 16.8%. On the contrary, about 70% of the education for non-standard workers is on-the-job training. The motivation for participation in the programs is more by the direction of company (60%) than by voluntary request (40%).
The training expenses are found to be borne mostly by companies (86.1%). Regarding the effectiveness of the educational programs, most workers answer 'satisfactory' (49.3%) or 'average' (41.6%).
The percentage of respondents who wish to attend the educational training is about 35.2%, which shows that the desire for the programs is not very strong. However, most workers, i.e., 70~83%, positively perceive the necessity of educational programs to
develop human relations, improve basic work competence, acquire professional skills, and enhance cultural knowledge. The most desired types of educational training are those to 'improve current job competence' (54.9%), and to 'assist transfer to other occupations' (27.9%). In terms of training methods, employers dominantly prefer on-the-job training.
On the contrary, workers desire 'public commissioned training' (31.9%), 'private training institutions' (23.3%), 'on-the-job training' (20.7%), and 'training via internet or mail' (10%). Most workers prefer 'training during work hours' and request some compensation, e.g., training allowance, for lost income occurred while participating in the program.
Regarding the cost of training, workers expect a more active role of the government.
There are complicated issues in vocational competence development for non-standard workers. First, the internal composition of 'non-standard workers' is very complex.
Second, the goals of the education and training programs are ambiguous. That is, it is not always clear whether the programs are designed to support the transfer of workers from part-time jobs to full-time ones, or to promote work productivity in current job situations. Furthermore, there are other problems such as the lack of understanding of the necessity and effects of vocational training of non-standard workers, ways to secure of budget and time for the training, and compensation for the loss of wage due to training.
However, there are also reasons that make the vocational education program for non-standard workers a great necessity. First, those programs can bring non-standard workers, who have been left out of vocational development opportunities, into national program for human resource development. Second, they advance the social equity of vocational education projects. Third, they increase the functional flexibility of labor market, and thus promote career development of individual workers, productivity of corporations, and competitiveness of national human resources.
We propose that the vocational education for non-standard workers be promoted in keeping with the following principles. First, all rights and supports given to regular workers by the existing laws and institutions should be accordingly provided to non-standard workers. Second, considering the huge gap that exists between regular and non-standard workers, a priority, should be given to the latter in vocational training projects. This can be implemented, for example, by setting a minimum quota of
non-standard worker participation in certain training projects. Third, considering the internal complexity of non-standard workers, separate approaches should be applied according to varying characteristics of target groups.
We propose that the vocational education supporting programs should aim to benefit both workers and employers. Supports should be provided to employers when they initiate the training programs within or outside the company. When workers themselves seek the training for their productivity or career development, appropriate supports should be provided to the individual workers. We suggest that employer-initiated training should focus on the on-the-job training (OJT), and if necessary and possible, off-the-job training (Off-JT). On the contrary, employee-initiated training for self-development or career development are considered to be most efficient in off-the-job training projects. In both cases, we highly recommend the application of work-associated training programs, i.e.
time-based educational training programs that combine vocational training with work performance, or module training methods. Under current wage system, it costs non-standard workers part of their income to participate in training programs. Thus, we propose that an allowance program for the non-standard worker participants be introduced.
To be specific, we suggest that the vocational education supporting programs should provide non-standard workers with allowances compensating part or all of lost income while they participate in the employer-initiated program during work hours.
We propose that the budget for the vocational education supporting program be secured from the employment insurance fund for the workers who are insured by the fund. We suggest that the budget for the workers who are not insured be drawn from the general account, quoting 'budget for human resource development of non-standard workers'. We also recommend that all non-standard workers be covered by the employment insurance as soon as possible. In addition, we propose the introduction of career development planner program for non-standard workers to make the vocational training for those workers more systematic. According to this program, career development planners process a comprehensive evaluation of the individual's aptitude, ability, future plan, and psychology to provide the workers with advice and guidance for their career development.
For these supporting programs to be most efficient, the following policy projects should be considered: First, labor market policy to narrow the gap between regular and non-standard workers in terms of wage and work conditions, and thereby advance equality in workplaces should be planned and implemented. Second, laws and regulations on employment insurance should be amended in order to incorporate greater portion of non-standard workers into the insurance program. For the non-standard workers who are subject to the insurance programs but are not covered as yet, we recommend more active exercise of authority by administrative offices. Third, at corporate level, we propose that a more systematic human resource management for the non-standard workers, and practices of formal employment agreements be developed. Fourth, we suggest that the programs to encourage employees to participate in vocational development programs should expand to cover non-standard workers who meet certain conditions. Fifth, educational leaves and academic loans should be allowed, under certain conditions, to non-standard workers who plan to take additional educational training outside the company. Finally, policy should be made to promote social awareness of the necessity and importance of vocational education programs for non-standard workers. It should also assist the formation of social partnership among parties concerned.
An Approach for Vocational Education and Training for Women in the Knowledge-Based Society
Mee-Souk Kim Jee-Hee Choi I.
The paradigm shift toward a knowledge-based society has underlined the importance of knowledge and has ushered in the knowledge-based economy, in which there is a growing emphasis on the significance of activating of the female labor force. Recently, the development of women's vocational competencies to increase their employability has emerged as a key issue in improving the quality of women's lives and strengthening the competitiveness of the nation.
In Korea, raising the utilization level of the female labor force to that of advanced countries has become not an 'optional' or a 'supplementary' alternative in expanding the scope of labor force utilization but an indispensible initiative for the sustained development of the national economy. To become a substantially advanced nation by 2010, Korea needs to maintain a tall annual economic growth rate of 6.1% every year which would require three million new entries into the labor force in the process.
However, as it would be impossible to meet such labor requirements with only males whose utilization has already reached the level of saturation, the female labor force must be actively cultivated. Without leveraging the contribution of highly educated women whose capabilities are being grossly underutilized, it would be next to impossible for Korea to take its [;ace among the world's advanced countries.
It has become imperative to alter the perception regarding female employment and, specifically, to improve women's vocational capacities in order that their position in the general as well as the knowledge society can be enhanced. It is particularly required
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that women develop their own agenda to actively enter the workforce and seek specific ways to implement such an agenda.
Acknowledging the increasing necessity of leveraging the female labor force in a more effective and active way both in Korea and abroad in response to the emergence of the knowledge-based society, this study examines various aspects of the directions and implementation strategies of Korea's vocational education and training which are intended to develop Korean women's vocational capability. It also provides answers, based on analysis, on how to implement women's vocational education and training suitable for to the knowledge-based society. To achieve these objectives, the study analyzes national systems and policies on women's vocational education and training, assesses supply and demand of the female labor force, analyzes collected field opinions regarding the operation of vocational education and training facilities to further develop women's vocational capabilities, and suggests policy directions and development strategies for women's vocational education and training to boost women's vocational capabilities in the knowledge-based society.
II.
The study first examines the characteristics of a knowledge-based society. Different people adopt different concepts and characteristics of the knowledge-based society based on their own needs. The meaning and scope of the knowledge-based society vary greatly depending on the objectives of research. Accordingly, it is important to identify the characteristics and tendency of knowledge and knowledge-based economy and society, and to determine the impact the change towards a knowledge-based society has on the labor market and, especially, what it would mean to the development of women's vocational capabilities.
Secondly, the study makes a systematic analysis of various policies that the nation has been developing and implementing to develop women's vocational capabilities in a knowledge-based society. For instance, the level and content of existing policies regarding
the development of the female labor force, as well as required improvements in their implementation are systematically examined. As the policies are implemented differently depending on the level, type and sponsoring institution of vocational development, they often result in redundancy, lack connection among them, or lead to a series of random trials and errors. Therefore, policies and responsibilities of government offices which have been implementing existing systems for the development of women's vocational capability should be further analyzed to develop more comprehensive and consistent policies.
Thirdly, the workforce required in a knowledge-based society is discussed, especially focusing on the supply and demand of the female labor force. Generally, it is difficult to categorize the labor force required in a knowledge-based society into male and female.
Although more women are participating in economic activities in the knowledge-based society, it is not the case that only the female labor force is required in the workplace.
In other words, it is difficult to find jobs that exist only for women in the knowledge-based society. Therefore, the study focuses on finding job categories where women may enjoy a comparative advantage in the various industries of the knowledge-based society, considering gender-specific elements that characterize women, for instance, environmental and personal elements. For this, statistics on the supply and demand of female labor force are analyzed to pinpoint areas where women's competitiveness can strongly be exerted. Also, prospective careers or job categories for women that have been developed through diverse research on the development of women's vocational capacity are systematically organized to extract common factors.
Based on such efforts, areas of job categories that need to be developed and promoted for women to pursue in a knowledge-based society are identified.
Finally, the opinion of institutions that specialize in women's vocational education and training is the most important input in setting the plans for the development of the female labor force in a knowledge-based society. The objective is to actively leverage these institutions in terms not only of demand but the supply of the female labor force.
To concentrate more on the discussion of women's vocational education and training, the objectives and activities of these institutions are examined, the level of preparations being made to develop and enhance women's vocational capabilities in the knowledge-based
society is assessed, and the level of the national effort to build an adequate infrastructure for the development of the female labor force is identified. In particular, the study examines the necessary conditions for effectively utilizing limited resources and verifies the necessity to distribute available resources is verified.
III.
To develop women's vocational capability required in a knowledge-based society, the direction of women's vocational education and training has to be firmly set. Especially, strengthening women's intellectual competitiveness is a prerequisite for the Korean economy to advance into the knowledge-based economy. Among the various issues to be addressed and reforms to be implemented in many areas to upgrade the nation's intellectual competitiveness, a deciding factor will be found in the creation of an environment that effectively fosters the formation and dissemination of intellectual capital, which is a key element of intellectual competitiveness.
This study provides a comprehensive and systematic view on the direction of vocational education and training to improve women's vocational capability in a knowledge-based society. To efficiently and effectively implement women's vocational education and training in a knowledge-based society, it is imperative to establish the requisite cultural and social environment that enables the nation and individuals to fully leverage intellectual assets and strengthen intellectual competitiveness.
Three basic principles need to be kept in mind in establishing the environment and implementing women's vocational education and training in a knowledge-based society.
First, the vocational education and training should be flexible and client-oriented.
Providing a flexible vocational education and training designed to accommodate the gender-specific characteristics of women is essential in encouraging women to participate in the program. Meanwhile, the vocational program that meets the needs of women as well as the supply and demand of the labor market helps overcome the barriers against female employment and serves as a very important variable in developing the plans to
help women obtain vocational proficiency. Second, it is necessary to develop diversified and sound vocational education and training institutions. For these institutions to be competitive, they must be capable of providing quality education and training. Third, a lifelong education system needs to be established to continuously enhance the vocational capabilities of workers so that they can adequately respond to social changes and technological development. It is especially important to help women to maintain their employment by enabling them to obtain skills and knowledge required to adapt themselves to changes in the society, technology, organization and business environment.
IV.
Based on the three principles discussed above, this study provides specific development strategy to help women obtain, maintain and leverage vocational capabilities. Proper vocational education and training will ensure a steady supply of competent female labor force that is both creative and proactive and will help women obtain the knowledge required in a knowledge-based economy throughout their lives. To eliminate gender discrimination against women, it is essential for the labor force of women to acquire the attitudes and capabilities that the 21st century labor market demands. Therefore, it is necessary to motivate women to develop their competence, expand opportunities to participate in the program, and provide institutional support to maximize the development of potential. In addition, administrative and financial support systems should be provided for women's vocational education and training so that quality knowledge can be created to strengthen intellectual competitiveness.
Vocational education and training leads to productivity. It helps individual workers to obtain the skills required to take on other jobs, acquire basic tools for continuous learning, conduct standard businesses, generate and use information, develop new technology, and improve productivity. It plays an important role in providing women with recognition skills as well as social skills. Therefore, educational and training opportunities for women should be expanded. However, vocational prospects for women are relatively
limited even when a woman's competence is superior to a man's. For instance, women have a higher ratio of being employed in irregular jobs than men do. It is difficult for women with irregular jobs to get access to education and training programs that private enterprises offer. This is because employers feel that either the return on their investment on women's education and training yields lower benefits than men's, or women have a lower level of labor power than men do.
To help overcome these barriers under the precondition that a change in social perception is required, this study proposes four strategies to develop women's vocational education and training in a knowledge-based society. First, build adequate infrastructure for women's vocational education and training. Second, link women's vocational education and training with the labor market. Third, develop plans to support and educate women in areas of IT and entrepreneurship that are well suited for women to develop a comparative advantage in a knowledge-based society. Finally, as part of the government effort to provide administrative and financial support to effectively implement the plans, reform institutional systems and develop a coordinated collaboration among government offices.
A Study on the Development Model and Implementation of Curriculum in Colleges in Korea
Kyeong-jong Kang Jong-woo Kim I.
The purpose of this study was to develop a model of curriculum development through systematic analysis and, based on the model, to design methods and processes of curriculum development for a college as a vocational education institute.
To accomplish this purpose, an appropriate model of curriculum development was developed, based on this model, practical curriculums of the liberal arts course, tax accounting major, and networking major were developed, and, based on the curriculum, plans of curriculum implementation for a college were presented.
II.
This study was performed through literature review and data analysis, interview, survey, and expert council workshop.
Literature review and data analysis around the world were focused on the roles and functions of college which are dependent on the change of educational circumstances, models of curriculum development, and the methods and processes of curriculum development. To have a thorough grasp of the present condition of curriculum development and implementation in colleges, interviews were performed in 15 colleges.
Finally, three workshops were held to get feedback on the curriculum development from professionals in companies, professors in colleges, and others.
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1. The directions for developing a model of curriculum development in colleges
Some directions for developing a model of curriculum development in colleges are as follows:
First, curriculum development in a college can be approached in different ways such as making a new major, partial revision of existing major to set up a new major, improvement of an old curriculum, etc.
Secondly, curriculum should be developed systematically based on the particular properties of the local community and the characteristics of the staffs and faculty members in the college.
Thirdly, curriculum should be developed in the way of minimizing costs and time, considering the fact that most colleges are private schools and faculty members often have considerable loads of work to do.
Finally, curriculum development should be based on changes of the industrial world, and the needs of the industries, and the needs of the graduates.
2. Development of curriculum development model for colleges
In developing a model of curriculum development for colleges, development of a human resource education type which is suitable for the functions and roles of the colleges is most important. It is essential to conduct a needs assessment on industries, and in doing this the first step should be the analysis of what kind of human resources to which extent is in demand.
When a model is developed based on the human resource education type, target job specifications can be established for selecting and organizing the contents in a concrete way. After a human resource education model is established, establishment of educational goals and job analysis can be done, and this process is for extracting educational contents to accomplish educational goals. In this study, a circular model is presented,
and, in this model, each components are interrelated.
This model consists of 4 steps such as planning, development and implementation, assessment, and feedback. In the planning stage, needs of the local community, industries, and students are analyzed, and circumstances around the local community, industries, and colleges are analyzed. In a development and implementation stage, following tasks are carried out in a sequence: development of human resource education model establishment of educational goals, job analysis, educational contents selection and organization, development of a model for curriculum implementation, construction of teaching strategies, curriculum implementation, etc. In the evaluation stage, curriculum assessment is conducted, and its results are used in related stages.
3. Methods and processes of curriculum development for colleges
A systematic approach of curriculum development was attempted taking into account the roles and functions of colleges, diverse needs of colleges for curriculum development, the deficiency in competency of staffs and faculty members, cost and time shortage, etc.
Different methods and processes are used in liberal arts subjects and in major subjects.
This is because liberal arts subjects are related to the basic competencies and major subjects are related to professional competencies.
The development of liberal arts curriculum involves tasks such as pre-analysis of data, target group selection, data collection, data analysis, curriculum establishment, evaluation and completion. Curriculum development for major subjects areas is based on DACUM, a job analysis method, composed of major or department selection, job defining, job modeling, revision, job/task matrix establishment, subject/function matrix establishment, curriculum establishment, etc.
4. Cases of curriculum development for colleges
Liberal arts subjects, such as language and thinking, basic mathematics, job world and ethics, human relations, information management, problem solving, resource management,
etc. are included in the curriculum for colleges.
Courses in tax accounting include principles of accounting, introduction to tax law, computerized accounting practice, explanation of titles of accounting, cooperation tax, income tax practice, explanation of company accounting standards, currency flow, management analysis practice, local tax practice, etc. are included.
As major subjects for networking major, introduction to networking, network OS, digital communication theory, network analysis and design, network security, network construction, Wireless LAN, network application, network case study, and others.
IV.
Some recommendations for curriculum implementation in colleges are as follows:
First, an infrastructure should be constructed among government, conference groups, colleges, industries, and students to foster the exchange of human material and information resource and the formation of a pool of experts.
Secondly, curriculum development for colleges should be based on the needs of the industrial world and the analysis of circumstances.
Thirdly, competency improvement programs for the staffs and faculty members who are responsible for the development and implementation of curriculums in colleges should be provided.
Fourth, organization and implementation of the curriculums should be systematized.
Fifth, curriculums should be revised flexibly.
Finally, systematic studies about models of curriculum development and the methods and processes should be conducted.
A Study on Vocational Courses in General High Schools and Strategies for Further Development
Jong-hoon Ghang Su-won Kim
The primary purpose of this study is to appraise the current status of vocational education in general high schools and strategies for its further development.
To accomplish the objectives of this study, the researchers first reviewed relevant literature and statistical data to get an overview of the vocational courses in the general high schools and to identify problems. Second, meetings were held with parties that have expertise in the field to determine the details of the study contents and validate the survey methodology. Third, a mail survey and field interviews were conducted among principals, teachers, and students in those general high schools which offered vocational courses. The survey and interviews were conducted in order to ascertain the problems, perceptional differences, and needs for improvement in the various operating areas and items of vocational courses. Finally, a seminar was held to present the study results as well as to invite comments and open discussions. This paper concludes with the strategies for further development of vocational education in general high schools.
Based on analysis of data collected, the following strategies for the development of vocational education in general high school were devised in accordance with five course operation areas:
First, educational planning and student selection;
- The educational purposes and functions should be reestablished by the characteristic of the institutes.
- More teachers and staff exclusively dedicated to vocational education should be assigned.
- A more positive social perception of vocational education should be nurtured.
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- A various core courses of vocational education should be designed and provided.
- The student selection procedure and method should be improved.
Second, composition and operation of the subject areas;
- The composition ratio of academic, major practice, and major theory subject areas should be readjusted taking into account the type of operating institutes.
- The numbers of course subjects and students per class should be reduced.
- The students' level of understanding of the subjects' contents in educational institutes should be enhanced.
- The duration of the courses of study should be diversified to secure students' opportunities of selection
- Advancement into the higher education or industrial sectors after completion of the course should be discussed and provided for by legal processes.
Third, educational facilities and equipment;
- The conditions of educational facilities and environment should be improved and provided with more and better equipment.
- The scope of experiment/practice equipment and materials should be expanded.
Fourth, guidance;
- The students' drop-out rate should be decreased and the employment rate and the qualification attainment rate should be increased.
- Academic and career guidance should be strengthened.
Fifth, administration and finance
- Student welfare in the institutes should be promoted and the students' sense of belonging to the course should be encouraged.
- An incentive policy should be implemented by securing sufficient budget for the operation of the course.
- An institutional assessment should be made to improve the quality of the administration of the course.
