대규모 간척용지의 장기활용 방안모색을 위한 국제세미나
International Seminar on the Long-Term Land Use of Large-Scale Reclaimed Areas
2005. 4
국 토 연 구 원 농 어 촌 연 구 원 전 북 발 전 연 구 원 한 국 해 양 수 산 개 발 원 한국환경정책평가연구원
대규모 간척용지의 장기활용 방안모색을 위한 국제세미나
International Seminar on the Long-Term Land Use of Large-Scale Reclaimed Areas
2005. 4
(April 2005)
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세미나 일정 (PROGRAM)
13:00-14:00 등록
(Registration)
국토연구원 대회의실 (KRIHS Conference Room) 14:00-14:10 개회사
(Welcome Speech) 이규방 (국토연구원 원장)
Kyu-Bang Lee (President of KRIHS) 14:10-14:40 발표1
(Presentation 1) "환황해권 시대의 새만금의 역할과 기능"
(Role and Function of the Saemangeum Reclaimed Area in the Yellow Sea Rim)
-진펑쥔 (중국과학원 교수)
Feng-Jun Jin (Chinese Academy of Sciences Prof.) 14:40-15:10 발표2
(Presentation 2)
"토지개발에 있어서 바람직한 개발방식 및 고려사항"
(Desirable Directions and Considerations in Large-Scale Land Development Plans)
-오니시 다카시 (동경대학교 교수)
Takashi Onishi (University of Tokyo Prof.) 15:10-15:40 발표 3
(Presentation 3)
"네덜란드의 친환경적 간척지 조성사례 : 쥬다지 사례를 중심으로"
(Reclamation, Land Use and Environment in the Zuiderzee Project) -세거렌 윌 (전 델프트국제수리대학원 학장, 현 EU 상․하수처리기술위
원회 위원장)
Wil Segeren (HWG of the WSSTP of the EU Chair.) 15:40-16:00 휴식
(Break) 대회의실 로비
(Lobby ) 16:00-18:00 토론
(Discussion)
- 사회자 : 안동만 (서울대학교 교수)
Presided by Tong-man Ahn (Seoul University Prof.) - 토론자 : 김성귀 (한국해양수산개발원 연구위원) (Panelist) Sung-Gwi Kim (Research Fellow of KMI)
박형창 (전북발전연구원 연구위원) Hyoung-Chang Park (Research Fellow of JDI) 양하백 (국토연구원 연구위원)
Ha-Baek Yang (Research Fellow of KRIHS) 온영태 (경희대학교 교수)
Yeong-Te Ohn (Kyung Hee University Prof.) 이정재 (서울대학교 교수)
Jeong-Jae Lee (Seoul National University Prof.) 임종완 (농어촌연구원 연구실장)
Jong-Wan Lim (P.E. of RRI) 최영진 (중앙일보 전문위원)
Young-Jin Choi (President of Joisland of Joong Ang Daily) 최지용 (한국환경정책평가연구원 연구위원)
Ji-Yong Choi (Research Fellow of KEI)
18:00 폐회
(Close)
PRESENTATION 1
Role and Function of the Saemangeum Reclaimed Area in the Yellow Sea Rim
Feng-Jun Jin
Professor
Chinese Academy of Sciences
“환황해권 시대의 새만금의 역할과 기능”
진펑쥔 (중국과학원 교수)
세계경제의 개방화와 글로벌화는 고립적이고 독립적으로 이루어져 왔던 전통적인 국가경제발 전 패턴을 변화시키고 있다. 이제 한 국가나 지역이 그 경제적 위상을 강화하기 위해서는 주변 국 가나 지역의 여건과 그들의 전략을 고려하는 것이 불가피해졌다. 이러한 변화는 새롭게 개발되는 지역(신흥 개발지역)에게는 기회인 동시에 도전으로 받아들여지고 있다. 앞으로는 이러한 지역들 도 국내ㆍ외적인 환경을 활용하여 이미 발전된 국가나 지역들과 무한한 경쟁을 벌여야만 하는 것 이다. 이러한 세계시장체제 속에서 살아남기 위해서는 외부 환경변화에 능동적이고 대처할 수 있 는 효과적인 전략이 요구된다. 특히 신흥 개발지역은 국가지원이나 투자의 제약이 크다. 따라서 그 들이 자신의 경제적 목표를 달성하고, 장기적으로 지속가능한 발전을 이루기 위해서는 그 내부의 경쟁력과 혁신능력을 배양시키는 동시에, 거시적 관점에서 국내ㆍ외적 환경변화를 고려한 합리적 발전방향 (reasonable development orientation)을 수립해야 할 것이다. 새만금 지역도 예외는 아 니며, 그것의 역할과 목표 설정 및 개발전략의 수립은 거시적 관점에서 동북아시아라는 측면을 고 려될 필요가 있다.
지난 20년간 중국, 한국, 일본, 내몽고 및 극동러시아 지역을 포괄하는 환황해경제권에서의 국 가간 경제협력과 교역은 급속하게 증가해 왔다. 1990년 세계교역량의 11%에 불과하던 환황해권 국가의 교역량은 2003년에 25%로 증가했다. 중국, 한국, 일본은 서로에게 중요한 파트너로 자리 잡고 있으며, 3국간의 경제적 의존도는 점점 더 높아지고 있다. 또한 환황해권내의 지역간 분업체 계는 저개발지역에 대한 개발기회를 제공하고 있다. 신흥 개발지역으로서 새만금 지역의 미래는 이러한 맥락 속에서 이해되어야 한다. 1992년 이후 한ㆍ중 양국의 긴밀한 관계에 힘입어 중국 북 부 및 황해지역의 주요 항구들과 한국의 부산, 인천 등은 도시네트워크를 형성하고 있으며, 이들은 서로를 중요한 시장으로 인식하고 있다. 환황해권에서의 도시중심의 협력네트워크는 앞으로 더욱 급속히 발전할 것으로 전망된다.
이러한 점에서 이제 한국은 서해안에 인접한 중국의 해안지역들이 환황해경제권에 미칠 영향을 주시할 필요가 있다. 이 지역은 중국 국토의 15%에 불과하나 총인구의 약 42.5%와 주요 도시의 50%가 입지하고 있다. 2003년 현재 이 지역은 중국 전체 GDP의 70%와 수출입 교역량의 약 93%
를 차지하고 있다. 1978년 중국정부가 개혁과 개방정책을 채택한 이래 이 지역들은 중국의 주요 개발지역으로 성장해 왔다. 중국정부는 특별경제구역이나 경제개발구역 등과 같은 다양한 개발전
략을 수립하고 추진하여 왔고, 20년이 흐른 지금 황해안 도시들은 중국 경제발전의 핵심적 역할을 담당하고 있으며, 내륙지역을 위한 경제발전의 창구로서 역할하고 있다. 주목해야 할 점은 이러한 지역들이 산업발전, 외국자본 유치, 수출증진 및 첨단산업 발전 등 그들 나름대로의 분명한 기능과 목표 하에서 그 발전을 추구해 왔다는 것이다. 토지소비, 환경오염, 지역불균형 및 기존 도시와의 불협화음 등의 문제를 노출시키고 있음에도 불구하고, 이 지역들이 중국경제에 긍정적인 역할을 하고 있고, 동북아시아 경제협력관계에 지대한 영향을 미치고 있다는 점은 의심의 여지가 없다.
중국 황해안 지역의 급속한 성장은 중국뿐만 아니라 한국의 해외시장 확대로 이어진다. 따라서 양국의 신흥 개발지역들은 그 발전전략을 수립함에 있어 두 나라간 또는 지역간 산업, 관광 및 교 통 등에서의 협력 가능성을 중요하게 고려해야 할 것이다.
환황해 경제권의 성장과 지역간 유대 강화 및 교역량 증가 속에서 중국과 인접한 새만금 지역이 한국 서해안의 사회적ㆍ경제적 발전에 지대한 영향을 미칠 것임은 자명하다. 즉 거시적 관점에서 새만금 지역이 지니는 잠재력과 의미가 크다고 할 것이다. 튼튼한 한국경제의 기초하에서 추진되 는 서해안 개발계획의 일환으로, 이제 새만금 지역에 대한 정책적ㆍ재정적 지원이 절실한 때이다.
특히 이 지역은 지리적 위치나 동질적인 문화 환경이라는 측면에서 중국시장과의 연계에 좋은 조 건을 지니고 있다. 새만금의 잠재력을 충분히 활용하기 위해서는 앞서 언급한 바와 같이, 거시적 관점에서의 합리적 개발목표 설정 및 기능 부여가 가장 시급하다. 새만금 지역을 경쟁과 혁신이 가 능한 지역, 지속가능한 발전지역으로 만들기 위해서는 종합적인 개발전략과 단계적인 계획 추진이 중요할 것이다. 이와 더불어 신흥 개발지역에서 발생하기 쉬운 각종 환경문제 등을 방지하기 위한 계획도 병행되어야 할 중요한 고려사항이다.
지난 20년간 환황해 경제권은 급속하게 성장해 왔으며, 앞으로도 더더욱 발전할 것이다. 환황해 경제권내 지역간 경제적 유대와 상호의존성도 더욱 강화될 것이다. 이러한 모든 상황변화들은 황 해에 인접한 신흥 개발지역에게 더 많은 기회와 넓은 활동공간을 제공할 것이다. 합리적인 새만금 지역 발전전략 수립이 절실한 때이다.
I. Basic Concepts for Area Development under Open Conditions
1. Economic Globalization Has Become a Major Development Trend for the World Economy
Economic globalization has broken the traditional economic development pattern for a nation to develop its economy as an independent unit. In the current age, a nation or area must scan the situation of the world economic development or development conditions or strategies of surrounding nations and regions when developing its own economy for the purpose of establishing its position in the international division of labor. Such a fundamental change has brought both advantages and challenges for those newly developed areas. On the one hand, newly developed areas are no longer limited to local resources and market to design their own development routes, but instead make full use of conditions and markets both at home and abroad to work out a development strategy, build an industrial system, establish their own advantages and seek their own developmental spaces in the international division of labor. In view of economic development of different nations and areas for nearly 30 years, all areas or nations that succeeded in development such as Shenzhen in China, have achieved fast development and secured their own advantageous positions and features under the precondition of making full use of global resources and markets.
On the other hand, newly developed areas are facing increasingly tougher competition. As new entities, they must make greater efforts to cut apart the market shares both at home and abroad, and push and shove their way into the rank of developed areas and cut a share out of their markets. In the past 30 years particularly, the development of world trade and cooperation of internation economic have flourished, including bilateral and multilateral economic and trade cooperation, and a multinational regional economic network has formed with closely linked nations or major cities regarding them as the core[Lu Dadao, 2003].
During the 1990s, the volume of international trade increased by 72% and there was a strengthening trend for many multinationalsub-regions to enter into economic cooperation aimed at establishing a free trade area and create a tariff or economic union, etc., thus promoting free flows of commodities, services, capitals, technologies and personnel and enabling all member states within a cooperation
sub-region to develop shoulder by shoulder. The trend also indicates that the development environment facing an area is extremely complicated and ever changing and that current advantages do not necessarily predict an advantageous future. Therefore, to take off and establish one's position in an established market network like this, it is necessary to work out effective strategic plans and implementation steps, along with an adaptive mechanism to adjust one's own development routes according to changes in external conditions.
The Saemangeum Area to be developed is inevitably affected by the trend above. The formulation of its development strategy and design of its industrial structure should be based on a global perspective, especially on the perspective of economic development for the northeastern Asian sub-region, to identify a practically implementable development route and economic development strategy for anticipated goals.
2. A Reasonable Orientation is the Key for the Healthy Development of Newly Developed Areas
Generally, newly developed areas are economically backward areas of a nation or region weak in economic strength, technological basis, infrastructure and market development, etc. Even with abundant financial investments, quick improvement can only be expected in infrastructure, development environment and other aspects, without overnight establishment of their positions in the market. However, it is the hope of both the national and local governments that newly developed areas achieve their anticipated goals with limited financial investments and at a time duration as short as possible. As a result, it is crucial for newly developed areas to have a reasonable development orientation, timing and content arrangement, with strategic orientation being the general program for the development of developed areas, including function orientation and target orientation. According to international experience and various experience of currently developing nations, the orientation of newly developed areas must be scanned from the perspective of domestic and international development. In view of economic development, the orientation has to be considered in relation to domestic and international markets.
The figure below (Figure 1) outlines areas in different regions and their functions from the perspective of regional economic development.
Figure 1. O rganizational M ode of Regional Econom ic Areas in the Inform ation Era Domestic
market International
market
Sub-center Sub-center Sub-center
Gateway city
As we all know, China's economy has made remarkable development achievements during the past 20 years, with significantly enhanced economic strengths. It has been driven by economic growth in a series of development areas, which have a definite development objective and orientation from the very beginning of their development. Both the objective and function orientation are dynamic, improving continuously in the process of development. Meanwhile, the function orientation of different development areas is composed of various levels, emphasizing its position in domestic and overseas development. As proven in practices, this mode is successful in terms of economic development alone. It has both developed the economy and promoted social welfare provision. Summarized in theory, the design of this strategic orientation is also compliant with the basic theory for current division of labor in the world economy. Certainly, we cannot afford to ignore such issues as environment and land wasting.
3. Incubation of Competitiveness and Innovation Ability are Core Contents for Newly Developed Areas
While being environment friendly, incubation of economic competitiveness and innovation ability are core contents for newly developed areas. For the purpose of either balancing regional development in a greater scope (extending part of
functions from cities or intensive economic zones to development areas) or driving construction of development zones for rapid development of local economy, incubation and creation of a sustainable industrial system is the core. In fact, although construction of newly developed areas can receive a certain amount of financial support for an extended period to be used in building infrastructures, cleaning up ecological environment, improving investment environment and social welfare and many other aspects while developing development areas themselves or the area where they locate under promotion by government policies, that support cannot be permanent. Therefore, to maintain long-term and sustainable development of newly developed areas, incubation of economy competitiveness and innovation ability must be taken as a long-term task, or otherwise development areas will stop developing or lose development power once the government's supportive policies change.
Incubation of competitiveness and innovation ability requires limited functional areas with access to some particular preferential policies as carriers to create and highlight some advantage through concentrating various factors on the macroeconomic domestic and international backgrounds. That means intensiveness and time sequence for space developing scope, limitation of economic authorities and reliability of social and economic bases such as cities.
II. Economic Cooperation Situation of the Yellow Sea Economic Circle and Its Impact on Development of Local Economy
1. Basic Scope of the Yellow Sea Economic Circle
There has been a long history for studies of Yellow Sea Economic Circle since Chinese, South Korea and Japanese scholars brought up the concept of Yellow Sea Economic sub-Region was in the 1980s and conducted studies of its formation and development prospects [Jin Yuanpei, Li Wenyan, 1987], focusing on such aspects as economic cooperation and regional development strategies. During the 1990s, studies of the Yellow Sea Economic Region entered a flourishing stage, involving all aspects of regional social and economic development and cooperation.
Based on summarization of most study results, the scope of the Yellow Sea
Economic Region has three levels. In the narrow sense, the Yellow Sea Economic Region refers to only coastal areas of the Yellow Sea, mainly including Jiangsu, Shandong, Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin and Liaoning, in China, North Korea and South Korea, and the Kitakyushu area in Japan [Li Yushao, 1993; Wonbae Kim, 2000].
It accounts for 4.7% of the world population and 3.6% of the world GNP. In the broad sense, the Yellow Sea Economic Region roughly covers the northeastern Asian region, including North China, Northeast China, Shandong, Jiangsu, North Korea, South Korea, Inner Mongolia, Japan and Russia's Far East area, a geographical concept that has been most widely used. The Region has an area of more than 20 million sqm, with more than one-fourth of the world population and more than one-fifth of the world GNP. In a broader sense, the Yellow Sea Economic Region roughly refers to the eastern Asia area, including China, Japan, Korean peninsula, Mongolia and Russia's Far East area. This study mainly uses the concept in the broad sense, focusing on the scope of northeastern Asia in its analysis of development issues for different areas in the region.
Table 1. B asic D ata of N ortheast A sia and Vicinity (2000) Country or Region Area
(㎢) Population
(1,000 persons) GDP
(billion $) Export
(million $)
China 9596960 1267430 1159 266200
Hong Kong 1070 6665 165 20187
Taiwan 361790 22277 314 148000
Japan 377800 126870 4060 403500
South Korea 99260 47280 442 150400
North Korea 120540 22270 11 560*
Mongolia 1566500 2,400 1* 200*
Russia 17075400 1455600 277 103100
Far East 6200000 7630**
Source: China Statistical Yearbook 2001, China Statistical Press, 2001.
* Data refers to 1999
2. Economic Cooperation of the Yellow Sea Economic Rim is Closely Dependent
The Yellow Sea Economic rim is a region that is fastest in economic growth and most energetic in the world, with economic cooperation and trade between nations developing rapidly in the past 20 years, commodity and personnel exchanges increased at a high speed, and economic and trade links with each other as a market increasingly closely dependent. In 1990, the total import/export trade volumes in the region was $774.8 billion, accounting for 11% of the world trade;
in 2003, the figure was $2.0 trillion (statistics on national basis), accounting for 25% of the world trade. China, South Korea and Japan are key trade partners in the region, with their trade exchanges increased rapidly. For example, the trade volume between China and South Korea has increased from $8 billion in 1992 to
$90 billion in 2004 during the past 12 years (1992 2004), with a good development trend; in 2004, Sino-Japanese trade volume was $167.9 billion, Japan-South Korea trade volume reached $67.8billion. The total trade volume among the three nations is more than $335billion, accounting for 4% of the world trade volume. In 1991, however, the figure was only $52.4 billion, just accounting for 1.5% of the world trade volume in total. Table 2 shows historical changes in trade development between China and surrounding nations.
Table 2 The Trade Volum e B etw een C hina and O ther R egions in the Yellow Sea R im (U nit: m illion $) Country
(Territory) 1990 1995 2003
Total Export Import Total Export Import Total Export Import Japan 16,599 9,011 7,588 57,467 28,463 29,005 133,557 59,409 74,148 Republic Korea 1,943 1,259 684 16,983 6,689 10,293 63,222 20,905 43,128 Source: China Statistical Yearbook 2004, China Statistical Press, 2004.
The aforementioned development situation indicates that, in the Yellow Sea Economic rim, mutual economic dependency among China, South Korea andJapan has become increasingly intensive and a situation with each other as a market has been formed. Such a development trend has a deep impact on the economic development of various cities and newly developed areas within the Yellow Sea
sub-region. For instance, with its advantageous position, the Shandong peninsula has become an ideal target for South Korea's enterprises to make investments, forming a new development area crowded with South Korea-funded businesses.
At the same time, on the macroeconomic background for global industrial division of labor, multi-regional division of labor in the Yellow Sea Rim tends to be readjusted, providing development opportunities for some underdeveloped areas.
Therefore, in view of increasingly strengthening economic and trade links in the Yellow Sea Economic Rim, emerging areas, including the Saemangeum Area, have a bright development prospect. As long as they seize opportunities in policies, industrial development, etc., they will gain a greater market share.
3. Yellow Sea Economic Rim Still Lacks a Multilateral Cooperation Mechanism
Although the economic development of the Yellow Sea Economic Rim is flourishing, with increasingly strengthened economic dependency, the sub-region still lacks a multilateral cooperation mechanism at a time when free trade regions are kept being established around the world and there is not any definite schedule for the sub-region to build a free trade sub-region. That will have an impact on the area's stability and long-term development and an even greater impact on its efforts to reduce costs of economic development and economic/trade cooperation. I believe that it is extremely important for the sub-region to build a cooperation platform accepted by all involved parties and the platform must be built on the cultural basis of "mutual recognition."
The economic development of the three nations, China, South Korea and Japan, has been closely connected with the northeastern Asian region and subject to the impact from the region's political, economic situations and cooperation economy mechanisms. Due to lacking of a multilateral cooperation mechanism, cooperation among nations has by far to be maintained with bilateral relations, hardly forming an integrated region to resist impacts as a result of regionalization of the world economic cooperation. That does not match their newly gained positions as a result of economic development. Such a result has affected the economic development of different areas within the economic circle to different degrees.
4. Sino-South Korean Economic Cooperation Promotes High-Speed Development of the Yellow Sea Economic Rim
Since 1992 when China normalized its relationship with South Korea, bilateral economy exchanges have rapidly developed, forming a close cooperation relationship as well as a city network as in the case of extremely convenient connection between China's northern ports and Busan Pusan and Incheon. The situation will be continued for a considerably long period. Shandong, and Liaoning in China have taken developing cooperation with South Korea as the key for their overseas economic development and South Korean enterprises in turn have picked up China's coastal areas as their first choice for market development, thus forming the international division of labor based on labor and technologies. Meanwhile, at the national level, China and South Korea have maintained a very nice relationship, both recognizing the importance of developing the Yellow sea economic circle to each other. It is predictable that this development situation will promote high-speed development of a city-centered cooperation network in the Yellow sea economic circle.
Table 3. O verview of Sino-South K orean Trade
(U nit: $ m illion)
Year Total China 's Exports to
South Korea South Korea's Exports to China
1990 1,943 1,259 684
1995 16,983 6,689 10,293
2000 34,500 11,293 23,207
2001 35,910 12,521 23,390
2002 44,071 15,497 28,574
2003 63,222 20,095 43,128
2004 90,068 27,818 62,250
Source 1) China Statistical Yearbook 2004, China Statistical Press, 2004.
2) Ministry of Commerce Bulletin
III. Basic Experience in China's Coastal Area Development and Its Impact on Development of the Yellow Sea Economic Rim
1. Overview of Economic Development in China's Coastal Areas
China's eastern coastal areas include Beijing, Tianjin, Liaoning, Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Hong Kong and Macao Special Administrative Regions and Taiwan, with a territory area of 1.425 million Km², roughly accounting for 15% of China's total territory area. Coastal areas are densely populated, more than 400 per sqm, roughly accounting for 42.5%
of the national population (fifth census in 2000), and have a higher urbanization level, with the number of large and medium-sized cities accounting for more than 50% of the nation's total. Eastern coastal areas occupy a significant position in China's social-economic development. In 2003, GDP for eastern coastal areas reached RMB 8.0125 trillion, accounting for 70% of the national total; their import/export trade volumes were $789.4 billion, accounting for 92.8% of the national total.
The Chinese government adopted the policy of reform and opening since 1978, with coastal areas as key development targets. After 20-year efforts in establishing special economic zones, economic development zones and taking other measures, regional economic development and growth in foreign trade have been promoted and a situation for export-oriented economic development formed, indicating basic situations for China's economic development. We have several groups of data that can reflect the extent to which China is merged into the world economic system. Firstly, for more than 20 years in the past, China has introduced overseas funds by more than $620 billion (Table 4), more than 85% of the investments being made in coastal areas. Secondly, total import/export trades have rapidly increased. In 1990, China's total import/export trade volumes was only
$115.4 billion and the figure reached $1.1548 trillion in 2004. 90% of those trades have occurred in coastal areas (import/export volumes of coastal areas in 2002 accounted for 91.2% of the national total). Thirdly, the level of foreign trade dependency (the ratio of total import/export volumes in GDP) has been increasing, reaching to 66% in 2002. Major developed regions in coastal areas in particular have been closed connected with the world economy. In 2002, levels of foreign
trade dependency was 148% for Guangdong, 135% for Beijing, 111% for Shanghai, 92% for Tianjin, 55% for Jiangsu, 50% for Fujian, 45% for Zhejiang, 33% for Liaoning, 27% for Shandong, 26% for Hainan, 9% Hebei and 8% for Guangxi.
Table 4. O verview of Foreign Investm ents in C hina
(U nit: $100 m illion)
Period Total Foreign loan Direct foreign
investment Other foreign investment
1979~1985 216.3
(100%) 155.6
(72.0%) 47.3
(21.8%) 13.4
(6.2%) During Seventh
Five-year Plan (19861990)
462.8
(100%) 301.2
(65.1%) 142.6
(30.8%) 19.0
(4.1%) During Eighth
Five-year Plan (19911995)
1610.6
(100%) 455.8
(28.3%) 1141.8
(70.9%) 13.0
(0.8%) During Ninth
Five-year Plan (19962000)
2897.8
(100%) 559.0
(19.3%) 2134.8
(73.7%) 204.0
(7.0%)
2001 496.8
(100%) 0 468.8
(94.4%) 28.0
(5.6%)
2002 550.1
(100%) 0 527.4
(95.9%) 22.7
(4.1%) Source: Prepared according to China Statistical Yearbook. Data in parentheses is the ratio in total investments.
2. Development Zones are Engines for High-Speed Economic Growth
In summarizing China's experience in economic development, we can see that establishing various types of economic development zones has played a crucial role. Since 1980, China has established special economic areas one after another in Shenzhen, Zhuhai and Shantou, Guangdong, and Xiamen, Fujian, adding Hainan in 1988. In 1984, 14 coastal cities, Dalian, Qinhuangdao, Tianjin, Yantai, Qingdao, Lianyungang, Nantong, Shanghai, Ningbo, Wenzhou, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Zhanjiang and Beihai, were opened; in 1985, the Changjiang Delta, Zhujiang Delta, southern Fujian triangle area, Shandong peninsula and eastern Liaoning peninsula were established as open economic zones, thus forming a coastal open economy belt. In 1990, the Chinese government decided to develop and open the Pudong New District of Shanghai and further open some cities along the Changjiang River to form a Pudong-headed Changjiang belt of openness. Since 1992, the government has further decided to open some frontier cities and all provincial and autonomous
regions' capitals in the hinterland; it has also established 15 tax-protected zones, 32 state-level economy/technology development zones and 53 hi-tech industry development zones in some large and medium-sized cities, thus forming an open environment integrating coastal areas, river valley areas and frontier areas, with a full orientation, multiple levels and broad coverage. Thanks to different preferential policies, those open areas have served as a window and radiator to the hinterland in their efforts to develop export-oriented economy, earn foreign exchanges through exports and introduce state-of-the-art technologies.
Table 5. D istribution of State-level D evelopm ent Zones in C oastal A reas Project Bohai Sea Economic
Sub-region Changjiang Delta Economic Area Southeastern Coastal Areas Province and
municipalities directly under the
central government
Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei,
Shandong, Liaoning Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan
Number 33 31 39
State-level economy and
technology development
zones
Dalian, Shenyang, Yingkou, Qinhuangdao, Beijing, Tianjin, Yantai, Qingdao,
Weihai
Nantong, Lianyungang, Suzhou Industrial Park, Kunshan, Ningbo,
Hangzhou, Wenzhou, Xiaoshan, Ningbo Daxie, Shanghai Minxing, Caohejing, Hongqiao and Pudong
New District
Fuzhou, Fuqing Rongqiao, Xiamen Haicang, Guangzhou, Zhanjiang, Dongshan, Nansha, Huizhou Dayawan, Nanning,
Yangpu State-level hi-tech
industry development
zones
Shenyang, Dalian, Anshan, Shijiazhuang, Baoding,
Beijing, Tianjin, Jinan, Weihai, Qingdao, Weifang,
Zibo
Nanjing, Suzhou, Wuxi, Changzhou, Hangzhou, Shanghai
Fuzhou, Xiamen , Guangzhou Tianhe, Zhongshan, Shenzhen, Foshan, Huizhou, Zhuhai, Guilin,
Nanning, Haikou State-level export
processing zones
Dalian, Beijing, Tianjin, Yantai, Weihai
Kunshan, Suzhou, Hangzhou, Shanghai Songjiang,
Xiamen Xinglin Shenzhen, Guangzhou State-level
tax-protected zones
Dalian, Tianjin, Qingdao Zhangjiagang, Ningbo, Shanghai Waigaoqiao
Fuzhou, Xiamen, Shantou, Shenzhen Shatoujiao, Shenzhen
Futian, Guangzhou, Shenzhen Yantian, Zhuhai State-level frontier
economic cooperation zones
Dandong Pingxiang, Dongxing
State-level tourist
and holiday zones Dalian, Beijing, Qingdao Suzhou, Wuxi, Hangzhou, Wenzhou, Shanghai Yushan
Meizhou Island, Wuyi Mountain, Guangzhou South Lake, Beihai
Silve Beach, Sanya Source: Prepared according to concerned government documents.
Figure 2. C hina's R egional O penness Strategy
3. Various Types of Development Areas Have Definite Direction and Function Orientation
Establishment and development of above development areas have always been performed on the background of participating in global industrial division of labor, with a definite orientation and development direction.
Firstly, the Chinese government established a series of special economic areas and development zones at early stages since it adopted the policy of reform and opening for the purpose of making them windows for China to participate in the world economy, with a definite mission, i.e. a "technology window, management window, knowledge window and foreign policy window." Since China locked its doors against the world at that time, had a low level of economic development and limited capabilities, it accordingly identified the basic strategy to make use of international resources and key elements. The government wished to introduce foreign technologies through those development zones playing a role as windows and learn advanced international experience and knowledge and promote development of exporting operations so that they may serve as an engine for regional economic development. As proven in practices, this regional openness strategy is successful in promoting growth of regional economy. During the 1990s, major changes took place in China's economic development environment, with
those development areas established during the 1980s having reached to a certain development levels, and many experience and lessons need to be summarized.
Accordingly, the Chinese government has further improved function orientation for coastal development zones and proposed the development orientation of "Three Focuses", namely, "focus on developing industry, focus on making use of foreign investments and focus on earning foreign exchanges through exports," so that those development zones will play a more definite role in China's economic development.
Those zones gave a vigorous push to strengths of China's economy and foreign trade development at that time. From 1990 to through 2000, China's foreign trade increased from $115 billion to $474 billion, most of which was generated by the development zones. In the 21st century, with China's WTO entry, further changes have taken place in domestic and international development environment, requiring improvement of functions and positions of the development zones. Their major functions are currently "Three Focuses, One Commitment", namely, "focus on modern industry, focus on making use of foreign investments and focus on earning foreign exchanges through exports, commitment to developing hi-tech industry."
This orientation reflects the role played by the development zones during a new development period. Changes to above function orientation reflect their dynamic nature.
Secondly, developing the industry is a central task. China has 20-year experience in building of development zones without changing the task no matter what changes to the development environment, indicating that China has been pursuing the objective of developing economy instead of social welfare, also indicating that this strategy complies with the development law for economic division of labor in this century. On the other hand, selection of industries has been done in accordance with the principle of highlighting significant focuses, thus strengthening their own advantages. Many coastal development zones have by far joined to form a powerful economic union with their own industrial features.
Table 6. Pillar Industries for Part of Econom y/Technology D evelopm ent Zones
Development zone Pillar industries
Dalian Development Zone Electronics, machinery, textile, chemical engineering, medical
Tianjin Development Zone Electronics, machinery, biology, medical, food
Qingdao Development Zone Electronics, machinery, light industry, chemical engineering
Yantai Development Zone Machinery, electronics, food, chemical engineering
Weihai Development Zone Electronics, food, chemical engineering, building materials
Lianyungang Development Zone Machinery, electronics, textile, chemical engineering
Thirdly, functions and development directions for different development zones shall be determined according to different conditions and targets. The government makes overall planning to direct the industrial orientation for key development zones, accompanied by appropriate development policies, such as tariff reduction/exemption, tax-protected zones, export processing zones, etc., to encourage them to attract development of concerned industries and be closely connected with development of regional economy in terms of space and layout. Advantageous locations shall be selected as much as possible. For instance, China's hi-tech industry development zones have been distributed by types. One type is composed of innovative hi-tech industry development zones, most of them located near high education and research institutions, such as the Beijing Hi-tech Industry Development Zone and Tianjin Hi-tech Industry Development Zone. Another type include development-oriented hi-tech industry development zones, most of them located at key industrial bases, backed on technological and materials basis of large and medium-sized enterprises, pursuing the objective of industrial upgrade through developing new products, such as the Shanghai Hi-tech Industry Development Zone, Anshan Hi-tech Industry Development Zone, Shenyang Hi-tech Industry Development Zone. The third type concerns hi-tech industry development zones engaged in export processing, aimed at introducing advance overseas technologies
through making use of position advantages as coastal areas and favorable conditions enabled by the openness, to develop export-oriented hi-tech industries, such as the Hainan Hi-tech Industry Development Zone.
Fourthly, create an organic bond with supporting cities in limited spaces. It is necessary to operate in parallel with urban development so that newly developed regions can create an organic bond with cities' existing functions. The long-term development goal is to make development zones become an integral part in urban development. Although the Chinese government has defined the Changjiang Delta, Zhujiang Delta and Bohai Sea Rim as development areas and implemented appropriate policies for them, the development focus has been always on development zones in actual operations. Even low-level governments focus on development zones it has identified in its efforts to develop local economies.
Theoretically this mode boosts utilization efficiency of resources and prevents environment issues. Although some environment issues have not been prevented in fact, that development guideline is right, that is, the intensive development mode is an effective way for newly developed areas.
Fifthly, overall planning and step-by-step implementation. In summarizing China's experience in building development zones, we find that systematic planning has been performed during the development process, including land use, infrastructure, environment, social and other aspects, along step-by-step implementation measures, thus avoiding the tendency of random development.
4. Some Unfavorable Impacts in Building Development Zones
Although development zones play a significant role in promoting coastal areas economic development, there are some lessons to be learned. In the first place, land has been wasted seriously. Land is an essential element for the existence of human beings and it should be a behavior code for all human activities to cherish land. However, China's newly developed regions have wasted a lot of land during their development, along with repeated construction, causing losses of a great deal social and natural wealth. Future development zones should be warned for this. In the second place, there have been remarkable environment issues. In the past 20 years, China has been focusing on economic development and failed to pay enough attentions to environmental protection, thus leading to remarkable environment
issues in areas with high-speed economic development. The conflict between development and environment will be prominent in the future. Therefore, it should be one of priorities for newly developed areas to pay attentions to environment issues. In the third place, regional disparities have increased. Although intensive development has delivered anticipated effects and boost overall economic strengths, it also led to greater development disparities between different regions. In the fourth place, to a considerable extent, newly developed areas have not be operate in harmony with existing urban development. Under general conditions, China's newly developed areas are located in rural areas suburbs in urban fringes or unused areas, given a free hand in management policies to form their own systems during the development process, leading poor coordination with existing cities or even conflicts in ecology, views and functions in some cases, thus restricting incubation of the image for a city as a whole. This should also be noted for newly developed areas in the future.
5. Impact of China's Coastal Area Development on the Yellow Sea Economic Rim
High-speed internationalization of China's coastal economy has produced some impacts on the development of the world economy and trade, causing changes to trade situations. The impact is more significant for economic cooperation relations in the eastern Asia region. Although being positive on the whole in terms of common development and common prosperity in the area, it has brought about both positive and negative effects to a specific nation or enterprises.
Positive effects include the following aspects. Firstly, area prosperity has been promoted. Although Japan's economy has grew relatively slowly in the past decade, the eastern Asia region still be the fastest growing region with most active trading operations in the world, a fact that has a great deal to do with the development of China's coastal areas. Secondly, high-speed development of trades among nations in the Yellow sea economic rim has been promoted, forming a closely linked regional economy network with involved nations creating development opportunities to each other. From 1990 to 2000, South Korea's foreign trade volume increased by 148%, 25% of which came from trading activities with China, and Japan's foreign trade volume increased by 70%, 13% of which came from trading activities with China.
Promoted by high-speed trade development, a closely woven economic, trade and
culture exchange network has been formed among major cities of China, South Korea and Japan. Thirdly, it has provided possibilities for building a multilateral cooperation platform in the Yellow sea economic circle. The fast narrowing of the gap between China's coastal areas and Japan and South Korea in economic development levels has provided a cornerstone for recognizing each other on equal terms, thus making it possible to further plan the cooperation platform aimed at free trade or common development. The formation of the multilateral cooperation platform in the Yellow sea economic rim can both deal with risks in global economic development and promote regional stability and development. On this basis, each city can play a role as appropriate to provide a market for new development areas. Fourthly, it has provided a broader space for enterprises to allocate resources in a reasonable way. The development of China's coastal and hinterland areas has provided a huge market for enterprises in the area while allowing them to adjust their production strategies, complete allocation of resources in a reasonable way and adjust industrial structures using labor cost gradient, technology gradient and capital difference. According to a survey, South Korea's enterprises have established their production bases in Shandong, Liaoning and other areas out of considerations for such factors as marketing and labor costs (Table 7).
In view of negative aspects, high-speed internationalization of China's coastal economy has intensified competition of the world economy in the first place and reduced competitiveness for enterprises previously well positioned in the area, which is especially true in manufacture of household electric appliances and trade of textiles, agricultural products, etc. China's coastal enterprises have shown a higher level of competitiveness, thus changing previous market situation. In the second place, some industries have moved to coastal areas and as a result affected development of some areas. In the third place, some service centers also tend to move to coastal areas. Those issues above may change positions of some cities in the sub-regional economy network.
Table 7. Assessm ent of China's Coastal Investm ent Environm ent for South Korea-Funded Enterprises (w ith Shandong as Exam ple)
Item
No.
Satisfaction level of South Korea-funded
enterprises for investment environment Dissatisfaction level of South Korea-funded enterprises for investment environment
Satisfying aspects
Ratio of confirmed enterprises in total
responders (%) Dissatisfying aspects
Ratio of confirmed enterprises in total
responders (%) 1 Cheap and abundant labor
force 55.4 Poor labor quality 33.8
2 Tax reduction and
exemption 47.7 Unstable policies 20.0
3 Convenient traffic 35.4 Inconvenient custom
import/export procedures 20.0 4 Good incentives and good
faith of local government 33.8 Poor public security 15.4
5 Low land price 24.6 Backward financial
services 10.8
6 Stable policies 24.6 Complicated human
relations 9.2
7 High-efficiency government 24.6 Others 9.2
8 Convenient custom
import/export procedures 24.6 Information blocking 7.7 9 Convenient and efficient
communication 24.6 Low-efficiency government 6.2
10 Good financial services 21.5 Poor traffic conditions 3.1
11 Unblocked information 12.3 Inconvenient
communication 1.5
12 Others 4.6
Source: Li Wanyan, Sino-South Korean Economic Cooperation, Economic Management Press, 1999.
6. Many Cooperation Fields for China and South Korea
The rapid development of China's coastal areas has opened an extended overseas market for South Korea. In terms of development, newly developed areas of both nations should pay attentions to the following key cooperation fields when formulating their development strategies. The first is industrial cooperation. As said previously, the basic situation with two nations taking each other as a market has
been formed and industries are highly supplementary in development levels, basic layers, resource basis, labor cost and other aspects. Therefore, promotion of industrial cooperation can provide a vast market for enterprises on both sides.
Establishment of industrial system in industrial district and development of market with the Chinese market as the target should be one of the key development directions. The second is tourism cooperation. The high-speed development of tourism in eastern China's coastal areas and tourist demands is another opportunity for Sino-South Korean cooperation. Since 1992, when the two nations established diplomatic relations, more and more Korean tourists have come to China as the two nations' economic/trade cooperation and cultural exchanges develop rapidly (Table 8). In 1994, the Korean government abolished restrictions on Korean citizens traveling to China, with the year's number of visitors to China increased to 340,000 as against more 189,000 in 1993. The figure exceeded a million person-times in 1999 and was 1.679 million person-times in 2001. At the same time, Chinese visitors to South Korea have also increased considerably.
Accordingly, development of tourism targeted at visitor sources for China should also be one of the key programs at the state level. The third is transportation cooperation. With ever-increasing trade volumes, development centered on rationalization of ports and shipping networks is also one of the key aspects for Sino-South Korean cooperation. For the purpose of reducing costs, rationalization of the marine shipping network in the Yellow sea rim should be considered from three perspectives to benefit development of both China's coastal areas and South Korea. The first is taking Busan and Shanghai as hubs to serve the global marine shipping network. It is particularly important to develop a container shipping system, to become a global container shipping terminal port and transit port. At present, Shanghai and Busan have established their positions as the world's container shipping terminal ports and the future development should keep consolidating the established position and create a global container shipping line starting from the western bank of Pacific, Singapore Hong Kong Kaohsiung Shanghai Busan Japan North America. The second is focusing on sub-regional marine shipping centers, building a convenient, high-efficiency shipping network and supporting infrastructures within the Yellow Sea sub-region. In addition to development of container shipping and general traffic, those ports should work energetically to develop offshore high-speed shipping, including high-speed freight
shipping and high-speed passenger shipping, and establish a high-speed shipping network among ports it is necessary to develop roll-in/roll-out shipping among ports and form a coordinated mechanism in technologies, infrastructures, management and policies ; the primary target is to promote industrial development.
We should established a river-sea through transport system, develop land bridge shipping, develop combined transport of South Korea and mainland China and develop offshore ferry traffic. China is currently working energetically to develop ferry traffic between Dalian and Yantai. After the project is completed and gains operational experience, we recommend developing ferry traffic between South Korea and the Shandong peninsula, Tianjin and other areas. The third is for other ports to serve local customers primarily, with internal trade as the major development direction, and develop as branch ports in international trade.
Table 8. Num bers of Entry-Exit Tourists from China and South Korea and Total Foreign Exchanges G enerated (1989 2000, person-tim es; $ m illion)
Year Korea to China visitors China's earnings China to Korea visitors South Korea's earnings
1989 1,112 0.13 19,042 15.23
1990 10,220 12.26 42,640 3.41
1991 82,926 99.51 78,640 62.91
1992 112,403 134.88 86,865 69.49
1993 189,868 227.84 99,957 79.96
1994 340,312 408.37 140,985 112.79
1995 716,596 859.91 178,359 142.69
1996 908,868 545.32 199,604 159.68
1997 954,670 572.80 214,244 171.39
1998 606,105 363.66 210,662 168.53
1999 1,013,348 608.00 316,639 253.31
2000 1,344,721 806.83 422,794 354.23
Total 6,257,849 4,640.75 2,010,431 1,593.62
Source: from Tourist Journal, Issue 5, p30, 2002.
Ⅳ. Viewing Growth of Saemangeum Area from Development
of the Yellow Sea Economic Rim
Saemangeum Area, a focus of an important plan of Korea's land development, will certainly have a critical effect on socioeconomic development of the west bank of Korea. Since the author does not know much about this area nor contents of development plans, it seems improper to express vague and general comments on specific details without research basis. However, from a macro viewpoint of regional development, the author thinks that development of this area is both meaningful and potential. Here are some viewpoints of the author for references of Korean colleagues.
1. Saemangeum Area is Facing a Good Development Environment
No matter in view of general trend of in development of Yellow Sea economic rim, or of Sino-South Korea economic development or from development base and potential of Korea, Saemangeum Area is facing a very good situation of development. It is no doubt that the Yellow Sea economic rim will continue to thrive, international and interregional economic ties in the area further enhanced, trade volume increased and markets expanded. All these are favorable conditions for the development of Saemangeum Area, even tense political and military situations in Korean peninsula is showing a trend of mitigation. On the other hand, Korea has solid economic base, the west coast development plan has been implemented for years and achieved great performance and Saemangeum Area is a major focus of State-level development of South Korea. Therefore, it is ready for getting policy and capital support from the state.
What should be mentioned is that development of China's costal area corresponds with that of South Korea's coastal area, which could expand the space of industrial development in Saemangeum Area. Especially, it is an important development opportunity for South Korean industries to use Shandong Peninsula to connect with China market due to the super geographic location and mutually recognized cultural source.
Hence, under consideration of factors at all aspects, Saemangeum Area does have a super environment of development. Once these conditions are fully
exploited, it is certain that the development zone will realize rapid economic and social development and expected objectives of government.
2. Necessary for Defining Reasonable Development Strategies and Measures
Under consideration of experiences on new development zones in the world and the author's analysis and understanding of the growth process of development zones in China mainland, it can be said that developing reasonable development strategies and measures is a start point for a new development zone. No exception shouldbe Saemangeum Area. Otherwise, the growth of a development zone will lack of goals and directions. In past two decades, construction of Chinese development zones was always under the instruction of economic development and the support of relevant preferential policies. The goal of developing Saemangeum Area may be different from the intention of establishing development zones in China and for the area balancing area economy is probably the major consideration. However, whatever the objective is, there should be definite development strategies and goals. By learning the planning materials for Saemangeum Area, the author knows that above-stated strategies have been considered, including space development strategy, environmental protection strategy, infrastructure construction strategy and investment strategy. But the author thinks that it is necessary to further deepen instructional strategy and market expansion strategy for industrial development. Just as what demonstrated at the beginning of the article, to cultivate regional ability to compete and innovate is the key of sustainable development of a new development district and its core is development of industries and trades.
3. Economized Development of Land is Probably an Effective Way
According to the land use plan of Saemangeum Area, its coverage is 40,100ha. Where land area is 28,300ha and fresh lake area is 11,800ha. The area of development is so large that it is necessary to adopt the economized development mode, make overall plans and implement by stage, especially for arrangement of land use for industrial and city construction purposes. What gratifying is that the strategy has been embodied in the development planning of
Saemangeum Area.
According to experiences and lessons of China, it is very important to economize and fully exploit land use for construction of new development zones and it is a long-term program of lasting importance for the region.
4. Definite Instructional Policies Necessary for Industries and Trades
It is important to help a new development zone. Government should support at respects of infrastructure construction, city development, social security and capital. It is also necessary to give instructional policies for industrial development.
Development of industrial instruction should base on global background, serve State-level strategies of industrial development but not start from the standpoint of local benefits. The author thinks that the industrial instruction directed by state is necessary for developing a development strategy for a new zone, no matter in market economy countries, planned economy countries or countries in transitional period.
5. Environmental Protection Should Be Stressed
In general, new development zones are located in coastal area or important ecologicalregions and the direct result of development is to change original ecology of these regions. Moreover, in the growth process of new development zones, it is necessary to properly locate new industries, towns and infrastructures and address problems such as urban water pollution, air pollution and solid waste pollution.
Therefore, it is indispensable to well prepare initial protective plans of ecological environment and long-term control measures.
Ⅴ. Conclusions
The Yellow Sea Economic Rim developed rapidly in past two decades and the international trade also grew significantly, forming a mutual market and providing opportunities and markets for districts in the sub-region. In the future, the economy of Yellow Sea Rim will develop further and the mutual economic
ties would become increasingly close, forming an interdependent relationship. At the same time, adjustment of regional economic relationships is also an important trend. All these gratifying situations provide a broad development space for new development zones.
It is necessary for new development zones to develop reasonable development strategies and functional positioning. Only feasible strategies could direct healthy growth of development zones. In view of development mode, economized development is an effective mode, construction of industrial system and cultivation of competitiveness are of key importance and at the same time, environmental problems must be considered.
References
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