Although the recession had a profound impact on workers and firms through falling real wages and labour productivity, the impact of recession appears to have been similar, for the most part, in the union and non-union sectors, although the more unionised public sector did suffer greater job losses and workers in the public sector experienced greater job insecurity than those in the private sector. There were, however, two areas in which economic effects differed between the union and non-union sectors. First, private sector unionised workplaces were more likely to close between 2004 and 2011 than similar non-union workplaces. Second, there is some evidence of greater labour intensification in the union sector compared to the non-union sector.
Conclusions
Our review has summarised the current research evidence on the micro-economic impact of workplace union representation, covering a wide range of issues of interest to workers and employers. Such a review provides a useful reference point for discussions around the Trade Union Bill, which would inevitably place some additional restrictions on union activity in the UK. More broadly, however, reviews such as this also provide potentially useful reference points for employees - for whom the economic returns to union membership are a key factor in deciding whether to join (Charlwood, 2002) – and for employers who are largely free to decide whether to encourage or discourage union organisation within the UK’s largely-voluntarist system of collective employment relations.
We find that unions still deliver observable benefits to the average union member, in terms of higher wages, more extensive fringe benefits, higher levels of workplace training and the
more effective resolution of individual workplace disputes. At the same time, the negative effects on employers, once a common feature of empirical studies, have largely dissipated in recent years.
There are two important caveats to this conclusion, however. First, it is clear that union effects are heterogeneous, and that a number of the observed effects are confined to workplaces with on-site representatives or high membership density. This contributes to heterogeneity of experience across sectors and types of worker. Second, we focus on the private returns to workers and firms. Unions also have broader potential impacts on society, such as their role in promoting democracy (see, for example Bryson et al., 2014), which are not touched on here.
Private sector Whole economy
2004 2011 2004 2011
Workplace has recognised unions 13 12 22 22 Workplace union density:
Zero 81 86 73 78
1-49% 12 11 14 13
50-100% 6 3 13 10
Workplace union rep:
No recognition 87 88 78 78
Recognition without on-site rep 9 9 15 15
Recognition + on-site rep 4 3 7 7
PT/FT rep of recognised union:
No on-site rep of recognised union 96 97 93 93
Part-time rep 4 3 7 6
Full-time rep 0 0 1 1
Hours on union duties:
No on-site rep of recognised union 96 97 93 93
Hours missing 1 1 1 2
0-4 hours 2 2 4 3
5-14 hours 1 0 1 1
15+ hours 0 0 1 1
Union strength index (range 0-6):
Mean 0.38 0.25 0.72 0.57
Median 0 0 0 0
75th percentile 0 0 0 0
Number of observations (minimum) 1,660 1,801 2,203 2,522 Source: WERS Survey of Managers
Base: Workplaces with 5 or more employees
Union member 20 19 31 30 Workplace has recognised unions 32 35 48 51
Workplace union density:
Zero 57 60 44 47
1-49% 28 27 29 30
50-100% 15 13 27 24
Workplace union rep:
No recognition 68 65 52 49
Recognition without on-site rep 8 7 11 11
Recognition + on-site rep 24 28 36 40
PT/FT rep of recognised union:
No on-site rep of recognised union 77 73 65 62
Part-time rep 18 20 25 28
Full-time rep 6 7 11 11
Hours on union duties:
No on-site rep of recognised union 76 72 64 60
Hours missing 2 5 3 7
0-4 hours 8 9 10 11
5-14 hours 6 4 9 7
15+ hours 8 11 14 15
Union strength index (range 0-6):
Mean 1.04 1.03 1.65 1.58
Median 0 0 0 0
75th percentile 2 2 3 3
Number of observations (minimum) 14,803 13,094 21,491 20,481 Source: WERS Survey of Employees
Base: Employees in workplaces with 5 or more employees
Workplace has recognised unions
Yes 1,097 1,272 1,133 1,313
No 545 538 1,093 1,308
Workplace union density:
Zero 948 1,158 968 1,183
1-49% 459 447 643 724
50-100% 253 200 592 626
Workplace union rep:
No recognition 1,097 1,272 1,133 1,313
Recognition without on-site rep 163 149 324 358
Recognition + on-site rep 382 389 769 950
PT/FT rep of recognised union:
No on-site rep of recognised union 1,324 1,471 1,527 1,732
Part-time rep 304 299 563 690
Full-time rep 77 84 203 245
Hours on union duties:
No on-site rep of recognised union 1,260 1,421 1,457 1,671
Hours missing 84 117 140 271
0-4 hours 112 102 211 236
5-14 hours 84 75 163 171
15+ hours 102 95 255 272
Union strength index (range 0-6):
Index observed 1,660 1,801 2,203 2,522
Source: WERS Survey of Managers
Base: Workplaces with 5 or more employees
4
Table 4.1: Log of Gross hourly pay (employee level) Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 Union member? Yes 0.138*** 0.073** 0.053*** 0.038** 0.193*** 0.107*** 0.081*** 0.065*** Any recognised unions? Yes 0.120*** 0.128*** 0.026 0.049** 0.159*** 0.137*** 0.023 0.051*** Union density (ref: Zero): 1‐49% 0.017 0.024 ‐0.025 0.006 0.067** 0.080** ‐0.020 0.007 50‐100% 0.196*** 0.160*** 0.066*** 0.086*** 0.192*** 0.105*** 0.043** 0.057** On‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): Recognition without on‐site rep 0.045 0.094 0.010 0.049* 0.099*** 0.071 0.018 0.052** Recognition + on‐site rep 0.144*** 0.136*** 0.034* 0.049** 0.177*** 0.155*** 0.026 0.050** Union strength: Index (range 0‐6) 0.043*** 0.032*** 0.016*** 0.021*** 0.045*** 0.027*** 0.013*** 0.018*** Number of observations 14277 12098 14259 12064 20690 18843 20658 18773 Source: WERS Survey of Employees Key to statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Controls: Employee level: gender, age, marital status, any dependent children, disability, white ethnicity, highest academic qu highest vocational qualification, occupation, hours, tenure, contract type. Workplace-level: workplace employment; single/mul organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, workplace age, region, largest occupational group (p sector dummy for whole economy models).
5
2: Satisfaction with pay – 5 point scale (employee level) Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 member? ‐0.182*** ‐0.024 ‐0.042 0.041 ‐0.173*** ‐0.071** ‐0.072*** ‐0.001 recognised unions? ‐0.150*** 0.006 0.016 0.061 ‐0.169*** ‐0.031 ‐0.023 0.087* density (ref: Zero): % ‐0.151*** ‐0.110** ‐0.042 ‐0.006 ‐0.127*** ‐0.064 ‐0.025 0.037 ‐100% ‐0.128*** 0.103* 0.108** 0.233*** ‐0.187*** ‐0.035 ‐0.009 0.131** ‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): without on‐site rep ‐0.150** ‐0.041 ‐0.020 0.024 ‐0.138*** ‐0.015 ‐0.040 0.106** + on‐site rep ‐0.150*** 0.017 0.035 0.078 ‐0.178*** ‐0.035 ‐0.014 0.077 strength: (range 0‐6) ‐0.034*** 0.018 0.026** 0.060*** ‐0.041*** ‐0.003 0.006 0.041*** er of observations 14591 12940 14572 12906 21197 20223 21163 20151 ERS Survey of Employees statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 trols: Employee level: gender, age, marital status, any dependent children, disability, white ethnicity, highest academic qu vocational qualification, occupation, hours, tenure, contract type. Workplace-level: workplace employment; single/mul n; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, workplace age, region, largest occupational group (p my for whole economy models).
6
Table 4.3: Any pension contributions received from employer (employee level) Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 Union member? Yes 0.157*** 0.053*** 0.174*** 0.049*** Any recognised unions? Yes 0.200*** 0.057*** 0.220*** 0.070*** Union density (ref: Zero): 1‐49% 0.104*** 0.032* 0.154*** 0.054*** 50‐100% 0.256*** 0.123*** 0.243*** 0.110*** On‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): Recognition without on‐site rep 0.06 ‐0.013 0.121*** 0.037* Recognition + on‐site rep 0.234*** 0.089*** 0.247*** 0.088*** Union strength: Index (range 0‐6) 0.057*** 0.027*** 0.057*** 0.025*** Number of observations 12587 12553 19729 19657 Source: WERS Survey of Employees Key to statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Controls: Employee level: gender, age, marital status, any dependent children, disability, white ethnicity, highest academic qu highest vocational qualification, occupation, hours, tenure, contract type. Workplace-level: workplace employment; singl organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, workplace age, region, largest occupational group (p sector dummy for whole economy models).
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le 4.4: Any off-the-job training in past 12 months (employee level) Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 member? 0.038** 0.028* 0.039** 0.027* 0.107*** 0.055*** 0.048*** 0.037*** recognised unions? 0.060*** 0.061*** 0.024 0.039** 0.126*** 0.086*** 0.031* 0.050*** density (ref: Zero): % 0.049** 0.032 0.003 ‐0.002 0.095*** 0.060*** 0.021 0.007 ‐100% 0.074*** 0.063*** 0.056** 0.073*** 0.140*** 0.075*** 0.052** 0.057*** ‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): without on‐site rep 0.102*** 0.055 0.042* 0.005 0.155*** 0.081*** 0.047** 0.034 + on‐site rep 0.046** 0.062*** 0.015 0.054** 0.117*** 0.087*** 0.023 0.058*** strength: (range 0‐6) 0.015*** 0.013*** 0.009* 0.016*** 0.030*** 0.017*** 0.009** 0.016*** er of observations 14671 12962 14652 12928 21330 20299 21296 20226 ERS Survey of Employees statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 trols: Employee level: gender, age, marital status, any dependent children, disability, white ethnicity, highest academic qu vocational qualification, occupation, hours, tenure, contract type. Workplace-level: workplace employment; singl n; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, workplace age, region, largest occupational group (p my for whole economy models).
8
Table 4.5: Five or more days of off-the-job training in past 12 months (employee level) Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 Union member? Yes 0.018* 0.007 0.009 0.008 0.053*** 0.017** 0.023*** 0.017** Any recognised unions? Yes 0.027*** 0.035*** 0.009 0.021 0.054*** 0.032*** 0.013 0.025* Union density (ref: Zero): 1‐49% 0.008 0.033** ‐0.015 0.024 0.033*** 0.028** 0.001 0.021 50‐100% 0.029** 0.041*** 0.002 0.052*** 0.058*** 0.041*** 0.012 0.049*** On‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): Recognition without on‐site rep 0.048** 0.055 0.030 0.032 0.071*** 0.042** 0.032** 0.034* Recognition + on‐site rep 0.021* 0.030** ‐0.002 0.016 0.049*** 0.030*** 0.003 0.020 Union strength: Index (range 0‐6) 0.006** 0.008** 0.000 0.010*** 0.013*** 0.008*** 0.002 0.010*** Number of observations 14671 12962 14652 12928 21330 20299 21296 20226 Source: WERS Survey of Employees Key to statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Controls: Employee level: gender, age, marital status, any dependent children, disability, white ethnicity, highest academic qu highest vocational qualification, occupation, hours, tenure, contract type. Workplace-level: workplace employment; singl organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, workplace age, region, largest occupational group (p sector dummy for whole economy models).
9
6: Satisfaction with training – five point scale (employee level) Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 member? ‐0.149*** ‐0.047 ‐0.054 0.020 ‐0.114*** ‐0.085*** ‐0.064** ‐0.011 recognised unions? ‐0.164*** ‐0.077** ‐0.037 ‐0.025 ‐0.109*** ‐0.088*** ‐0.038 ‐0.021 density (ref: Zero): % ‐0.111*** ‐0.033 ‐0.036 ‐0.020 ‐0.062* ‐0.036 ‐0.008 ‐0.003 ‐100% ‐0.179*** ‐0.091* ‐0.014 0.062 ‐0.134*** ‐0.115*** ‐0.037 0.002 ‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): without on‐site rep 0.041 0.024 0.054 ‐0.008 0.022 0.037 0.011 0.020 + on‐site rep ‐0.227*** ‐0.101** ‐0.083* ‐0.034 ‐0.149*** ‐0.122*** ‐0.066 ‐0.043 strength: (range 0‐6) ‐0.052*** ‐0.023** ‐0.013 0.010 ‐0.035*** ‐0.029*** ‐0.016 ‐0.002 er of observations 14467 12865 14448 12831 21052 20118 21018 20046 ERS Survey of Employees statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 trols: Employee level: gender, age, marital status, any dependent children, disability, white ethnicity, highest academic qu vocational qualification, occupation, hours, tenure, contract type. Workplace-level: workplace employment; singl n; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, workplace age, region, largest occupational group (p my for whole economy models).
10
Table 5.1: Labour Productivity – Subjective Rating Scale (1-4) Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 Any recognised unions? Yes ‐0.346 ‐0.017 ‐0.237 ‐0.13 0.156 0.246 ‐0.133 0.011 Union density (ref: Zero): 1‐49% ‐0.062 0.188 0.115 ‐0.026 0.052 0.292 0.056 0.063 50‐100% 0.250 ‐0.063 0.451 ‐0.042 0.429* 0.199 0.242 ‐0.107 On‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): Recognition without on‐site rep ‐0.245 ‐0.104 ‐0.140 ‐0.284 0.189 0.209 ‐0.130 ‐0.031 Recognition + on‐site rep ‐0.574*** 0.227 ‐0.452* 0.365 0.091 0.325* ‐0.140 0.153 Union strength: Index (range 0‐6) ‐0.011 ‐0.003 0.042 ‐0.001 0.068 0.058 0.006 ‐0.006 Number of observations 1660 1801 1659 1798 2203 2522 2200 2512 Source: WERS Survey of Managers Key to statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Controls: workplace employment; single/multi-site organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, age, region, largest occupational group (plus private sector dummy for whole economy models).
11
5.2: Product/Service Quality – Subjective Rating Scale (1-4) Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 recognised unions? ‐0.362*** ‐0.074 ‐0.315** 0.007 ‐0.113 0.110 ‐0.195 0.072 density (ref: Zero): % 0.149 0.037 0.295* 0.076 0.062 0.105 0.160 0.124 ‐100% 0.235 0.110 0.516 0.143 0.127 0.195 0.267 0.080 ‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): without on‐site rep ‐0.400*** ‐0.147 ‐0.371** ‐0.067 ‐0.134 0.089 ‐0.214 0.069 + on‐site rep ‐0.277** 0.128 ‐0.191 0.243 ‐0.072 0.155 ‐0.150 0.084 strength: (range 0‐6) ‐0.011 0.029 0.047 0.059 ‐0.008 0.051 ‐0.012 0.04 er of observations 1660 1801 1659 1798 2203 2522 2200 2512 ERS Survey of Managers statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 s: workplace employment; single/multi-site organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, private sector dummy for whole economy models).
12
Table 5.3: Financial Performance – Subjective Rating Scale (1-4) Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 Any recognised unions? Yes ‐0.422** 0.246 ‐0.510** 0.039 0.027 0.456*** ‐0.306 0.103 Union density (ref: Zero): 1‐49% ‐0.045 0.074 ‐0.063 ‐0.260* ‐0.027 0.268 ‐0.171 ‐0.102 50‐100% 0.039 0.164 0.060 0.009 0.278 0.387** 0.054 ‐0.148 On‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): Recognition without on‐site rep ‐0.406* 0.195 ‐0.456* ‐0.035 ‐0.028 0.427* ‐0.347 0.075 Recognition + on‐site rep ‐0.458** 0.389* ‐0.630*** 0.274 0.136 0.516*** ‐0.206 0.197 Union strength: Index (range 0‐6) ‐0.042 0.068 ‐0.044 0.025 0.04 0.109*** ‐0.017 ‐0.006 Number of observations 1660 1801 1659 1798 2203 2522 2200 2512 Source: WERS Survey of Managers Key to statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Controls: workplace employment; single/multi-site organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, age, region, largest occupational group (plus private sector dummy for whole economy models).
13
5.4: Workplace Performance – Additive Scale (0-9) Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 recognised unions? ‐0.458*** ‐0.066 ‐0.318 0.073 ‐0.530*** ‐0.149 ‐0.392** 0.158 density (ref: Zero): % ‐0.048 ‐0.053 0.029 0.037 ‐0.132 0.016 ‐0.095 0.178 ‐100% ‐0.325 0.244 ‐0.299 0.199 ‐0.525*** ‐0.26 ‐0.332 ‐0.101 ‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): without on‐site rep ‐0.344* ‐0.08 ‐0.189 0.121 ‐0.531*** ‐0.119 ‐0.426** 0.214 + on‐site rep ‐0.711*** ‐0.025 ‐0.592** ‐0.095 ‐0.528*** ‐0.217 ‐0.309 ‐0.053 strength: (range 0‐6) ‐0.110** 0.027 ‐0.101 0.05 ‐0.132*** ‐0.062* ‐0.082 ‐0.007 er of observations 1434 1623 1433 1620 1849 2221 1846 2213 ERS Survey of Managers statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 s: workplace employment; single/multi-site organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, private sector dummy for whole economy models).
14
Table 5.5: Number of Innovations Made in Past Two Years – Count Variable (0-7 excluding computers) Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 Any recognised unions? Yes 0.846*** 0.560*** ‐0.013 0.369* 0.772*** 0.409*** ‐0.171 0.263 Union density (ref: Zero): 1‐49% 0.353* 0.501** ‐0.378** 0.222 0.420** 0.485*** ‐0.419** 0.28 50‐100% 0.664** 0.747*** ‐0.335 0.268 0.715*** 0.513*** ‐0.537** 0.295 On‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): Recognition without on‐site rep 0.805*** 0.397 0.012 0.38 0.596*** 0.193 ‐0.197 0.223 Recognition + on‐site rep 0.941*** 1.022*** ‐0.069 0.334 1.123*** 0.871*** ‐0.108 0.400* Union strength: Index (range 0‐6) 0.214*** 0.211*** ‐0.033 0.091 0.213*** 0.135*** ‐0.053 0.073 Number of observations 1653 1788 1652 1785 2189 2500 2186 2490 Source: WERS Survey of Managers Key to statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Controls: workplace employment; single/multi-site organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, age, region, largest occupational group (plus private sector dummy for whole economy models).
15
6: Any Product or Service Innovation in Past Two Years Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 recognised unions? 0.155*** 0.145** ‐0.018 0.114* 0.071** 0.059 ‐0.062 0.087 density (ref: Zero): % 0.019 0.107 ‐0.065 0.054 0.015 0.072 ‐0.068 0.051 ‐100% 0.198*** 0.061 0.015 ‐0.021 0.086** 0.037 ‐0.045 0.034 ‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): gnition without on‐site rep 0.152** 0.154* ‐0.031 0.144* 0.047 0.05 ‐0.08 0.099 gnition + on‐site rep 0.161** 0.118** 0.012 0.019 0.118*** 0.077** ‐0.019 0.047 strength: (range 0‐6) 0.047*** 0.029* 0.001 0.008 0.023** 0.011 ‐0.006 0.009 er of observations 1653 1788 1652 1785 2189 2500 2186 2490 ERS Survey of Managers statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 s: workplace employment; single/multi-site organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, private sector dummy for whole economy models).
16
Table 5.7: Any New Technology Introduced in Past Two Years Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 Any recognised unions? Yes 0.107** 0.076 ‐0.065 0.051 0.085** 0.019 ‐0.088 0.019 Union density (ref: Zero): 1‐49% 0.076 0.164*** ‐0.058 0.111* 0.067 0.126** ‐0.075 0.104* 50‐100% 0.041 0.146* ‐0.148** 0.098 0.075* 0.06 ‐0.134** 0.092 On‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): Recognition without on‐site rep 0.093 0.07 ‐0.051 0.071 0.054 0.001 ‐0.085 0.03 Recognition + on‐site rep 0.141** 0.092 ‐0.098 ‐0.015 0.148*** 0.056 ‐0.097 ‐0.017 Union strength: Index (range 0‐6) 0.024 0.035** ‐0.029* 0.02 0.025** 0.011 ‐0.025 0.009 Number of observations 1660 1801 1659 1798 2203 2522 2200 2512 Source: WERS Survey of Managers Key to statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Controls: workplace employment; single/multi-site organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, age, region, largest occupational group (plus private sector dummy for whole economy models).
17
8: Number of Fringe Benefits Available to Largest Occupational Group – Count Variable (0-5) Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 recognised unions? 1.410*** 1.116*** 0.484*** 0.588*** 1.265*** 1.189*** 0.447*** 0.546*** density (ref: Zero): % 0.708*** 0.839*** 0.159 0.399** 0.710*** 0.877*** 0.124 0.420*** ‐100% 1.344*** 1.360*** 0.284** 0.751*** 1.265*** 1.310*** 0.294** 0.598*** ‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): gnition without on‐site rep 1.393*** 0.959*** 0.477*** 0.526*** 1.241*** 1.076*** 0.473*** 0.539*** gnition + on‐site rep 1.449*** 1.557*** 0.501*** 0.785*** 1.313*** 1.429*** 0.385*** 0.572*** strength: (range 0‐6) 0.383*** 0.391*** 0.117*** 0.208*** 0.325*** 0.337*** 0.096*** 0.146*** er of observations 1657 1799 1657 1796 2199 2517 2198 2507 ERS Survey of Managers statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 s: workplace employment; single/multi-site organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, private sector dummy for whole economy models).
18
Table 5.9: Percentage of Largest Occupational Group Receiving Off-The-Job Training in Past 12 Months – Seven-Point Ordered Scale Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 Any recognised unions? Yes 1.751*** 0.981*** 0.566** 0.287 1.747*** 1.097*** 0.440** 0.207 Union density (ref: Zero): 1‐49% 1.054*** 1.431*** 0.102 0.694*** 1.165*** 1.495*** 0.067 0.800*** 50‐100% 1.592*** 1.742*** 0.263 0.827*** 1.779*** 1.478*** 0.211 0.755*** On‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): Recognition without on‐site rep 1.895*** 0.789** 0.633** 0.178 1.739*** 0.936*** 0.451* 0.147 Recognition + on‐site rep 1.417*** 1.492*** 0.415 0.631** 1.764*** 1.424*** 0.411* 0.408 Union strength: Index (range 0‐6) 0.465*** 0.438*** 0.149** 0.167** 0.457*** 0.351*** 0.100* 0.122* Number of observations 1640 1785 1640 1783 2164 2492 2163 2483 Source: WERS Survey of Managers Key to statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Controls: workplace employment; single/multi-site organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, age, region, largest occupational group (plus private sector dummy for whole economy models).
19
le 5.10: Number of Days of Off-The-Job Training Received by Largest Occupational Group – Six-Point Ordered Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 recognised unions? 0.792*** 0.549*** 0.113 0.214 0.892*** 0.621*** 0.013 0.156 density (ref: Zero): % 0.545*** 0.708*** ‐0.083 0.332* 0.649*** 0.701*** ‐0.071 0.299* ‐100% 0.738*** 0.727*** ‐0.091 0.182 0.936*** 0.743*** ‐0.092 0.226 ‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): without on‐site rep 0.814*** 0.512** 0.087 0.202 0.850*** 0.540*** ‐0.011 0.127 + on‐site rep 0.740*** 0.647*** 0.17 0.254 0.974*** 0.784*** 0.07 0.252 strength: (range 0‐6) 0.213*** 0.195*** 0.019 0.046 0.241*** 0.182*** 0.006 0.044 er of observations 1612 1750 1612 1747 2114 2420 2113 2412 ERS Survey of Managers statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 s: workplace employment; single/multi-site organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, private sector dummy for whole economy models).
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Table 5.11: Log of absence rate Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 Any recognised unions? Yes 0.016** 0.010 0.003 0.008 0.020*** 0.012** 0.005 0.007 Union density (ref: Zero): 1‐49% 0.014* 0.011* 0.004 0.008 0.009 0.010* ‐0.002 0.006 50‐100% 0.004 0.011 ‐0.015 0.008 0.021*** 0.015** 0.000 0.011 On‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): Recognition without on‐site rep 0.016 0.007 0.000 0.008 0.018** 0.008 0.002 0.007 Recognition + on‐site rep 0.018** 0.016** 0.009 0.007 0.025*** 0.018*** 0.012 0.008 Union strength: Index (range 0‐6) 0.004* 0.005 ‐0.001 0.004 0.006*** 0.004** 0.002 0.004 Number of observations 1384 1553 1383 1551 1820 2149 1817 2142 Source: WERS Survey of Managers Key to statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Controls: workplace employment; single/multi-site organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, age, region, largest occupational group (plus private sector dummy for whole economy models).
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12: Injury Rate per 100 Employees in Last 12 Months Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 recognised unions? 0.561 ‐0.269 0.735 ‐0.174 0.276 ‐0.263* 0.544 ‐0.192 density (ref: Zero): % 0.678 ‐0.101 0.623 ‐0.033 0.462 ‐0.061 0.394 0.032 ‐100% ‐0.089 0.229 0.118 0.255 0.022 ‐0.079 0.218 0.006 ‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): gnition without on‐site rep 0.85 ‐0.307 1.144 ‐0.228 0.377 ‐0.316* 0.720 ‐0.223 gnition + on‐site rep ‐0.094 ‐0.163 ‐0.176 0.001 0.076 ‐0.152 0.121 ‐0.089 strength: (range 0‐6) 0.062 ‐0.020 0.102 0.014 0.027 ‐0.042 0.080 ‐0.036 er of observations 1660 1801 1659 1798 2203 2522 2200 2512 ERS Survey of Managers statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 s: workplace employment; single/multi-site organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, private sector dummy for whole economy models).
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Table 5.13: Illness Rate per 100 Employees in Last 12 Months Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 Any recognised unions? Yes 2.834* 1.27 1.923 1.481 2.858*** 1.663** 1.852* 1.090 Union density (ref: Zero): 1‐49% 3.488** 0.573 2.948** ‐0.274 3.220** 0.637 2.385* 0.029 50‐100% 1.576 ‐0.177 ‐0.201 ‐0.696 2.438*** 2.123** 0.726 0.649 On‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): Recognition without on‐site rep 3.47 1.805 2.423 1.889 3.281** 1.669* 2.099* 1.082 Recognition + on‐site rep 1.392 ‐0.229 0.807 0.172 2.015** 1.651** 1.259 1.115 Union strength: Index (range 0‐6) 0.612* 0.161 0.090 0.096 0.700*** 0.554*** 0.224 0.316 Number of observations 1660 1801 1659 1798 2203 2522 2200 2512 Source: WERS Survey of Managers Key to statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Controls: workplace employment; single/multi-site organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, age, region, largest occupational group (plus private sector dummy for whole economy models).
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14: Voluntary Quits per 100 Employees Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 recognised unions? ‐4.958** ‐2.827** ‐7.821*** ‐3.580** ‐7.840*** ‐4.685*** ‐7.088*** ‐2.903* density (ref: Zero): % ‐3.066 2.076 ‐3.465* 2.621 ‐4.468*** ‐0.143 ‐3.928** 1.865 ‐100% ‐8.880*** ‐3.807 ‐10.022*** ‐2.869 ‐10.999*** ‐6.069*** ‐9.017*** ‐1.053 ‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): without on‐site rep ‐3.374 ‐1.82 ‐6.429** ‐2.637 ‐7.053*** ‐3.789*** ‐6.554*** ‐2.518 + on‐site rep ‐8.670*** ‐5.763*** ‐10.987*** ‐6.668*** ‐9.472*** ‐6.617*** ‐8.403*** ‐4.228*** strength: (range 0‐6) ‐2.099*** ‐1.235*** ‐2.822*** ‐1.357*** ‐2.555*** ‐1.616*** ‐2.348*** ‐0.927** er of observations 1558 1705 1557 1702 2047 2361 2044 2353 ERS Survey of Managers statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 s: workplace employment; single/multi-site organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, private sector dummy for whole economy models).
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Table 5.15: Climate of Employment Relations – Subjective Rating Scale (0-4) Private sector Whole economy Raw Controls Raw Controls 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 2004 2011 Any recognised unions? Yes ‐0.126* ‐0.091 ‐0.069 0.051 ‐0.139*** ‐0.119*** ‐0.099 0.062 Union density (ref: Zero): 1‐49% ‐0.163** ‐0.141** ‐0.048 ‐0.016 ‐0.121* ‐0.141** ‐0.037 ‐0.016 50‐100% ‐0.019 ‐0.199** 0.020 ‐0.068 ‐0.109* ‐0.164*** ‐0.056 ‐0.029 On‐site rep (Ref. No recognition): Recognition without on‐site rep ‐0.010 ‐0.01 ‐0.008 0.088 ‐0.095 ‐0.05 ‐0.096 0.082 Recognition + on‐site rep ‐0.391*** ‐0.317*** ‐0.205 ‐0.07 ‐0.227*** ‐0.263*** ‐0.105 ‐0.009 Union strength: Index (range 0‐6) ‐0.026 ‐0.041** ‐0.010 0.006 ‐0.028** ‐0.041*** ‐0.007 0.004 Number of observations 1652 1800 1651 1797 2188 2517 2185 2507 Source: WERS Survey of Managers Key to statistical significance: *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1 Controls: workplace employment; single/multi-site organisation; organisation employment; foreign-ownership, industry sector, age, region, largest occupational group (plus private sector dummy for whole economy models).